- 


,v7  ^--v 

*•*••.,»  ^     } 


^  "5% 


N 


THE 


HALF  CENTURY; 


OR, 


A  HISTORY  OF  CHANGES  THAT  HAVE  TAKEN  PLACE,  AND 

EVENTS  THAT  HAVE  TRANSPIRED,  CHIEFLY  IN  THE 

UNITED    STATES,  BETWEEN    1800  AND   1850. 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 

BY    MARK    HOPKINS,    D.  D. 


BY 


EMERSON    DAVIS,    D .  D . 


BOSTO 
TAPPAN    AND    WHITTEMORE, 

114  "WASHIXGTOV   STREET. 
1851. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1850,  by 

TAPPAX  AND  WJIITTEMORE, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


CONTENTS. 


PAQt 

INTRODUCTION xi 


CHAPTER    I. 
POLITICAL    CHANGES    AND    EVENTS. 

SECT. 

1.  lu  the  United  States 1 

2.  Indians  ;  Particulars  of  the  Georgia  Controversy 31 

3.  Political  Changes  in  South  America 41 

CHAPTER    II. 
EDUCATIONAL    CHANGES. 

1.  Common  Schools 50 

2.  Infant  Schools 68 

3.  Lancasterian,  Pestalozzian,  and  Fellenberg  Schools 71 

4.  Colleges 7o 

5.  Professional  Schools 79 

6.  Parochial  Schools 83 

7.  Military  Academy  at  West  Point 86 

8.  School  Books 87 

x     9.     Newspapers 92 

»  10.     Periodical  Journals 98 


IV  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    III. 
CHARITABLE    EDUCATIONAL    INSTITUTIONS. 

1.  Sabbath  Schools , 102 

2.  Institutions  for  Deaf  Mutes . . .  v 107 

3.  Instruction  of  the  Blind ; Ill 

4.  Lunatic  Asylums  and  Hospitals  for  the  Insane 114 

5.  Instruction  of  Idiots 118 

6.  American  Education  Society 121 

7-     Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Collegiate  and  Theological  Ed 
ucation  at  the  West 126 

8.     Societies  for  furnishing  the  West  with  accomplished  and 

•well-qualified  Common  School  Teachers 128 

CHAPTER    IV. 
MORAL    REFORMATION. 

1.  The  Temperance  Reformation 130 

2.  Anti-Slavery 144 

3.  Anti-Masonry 163 

4.  Prison  Discipline,  Imprisonment  for  Debt,  and  Houses  of 

Reformation 169 

5.  Peace  Societies 178 

6.  The  Sabbath,  and  the  Means  used  to  promote  its  Obser 

vance 183 

7.  Moral  Reform 188 

CHAPTER    V. 

IMPROVEMENTS   IN   THE  MEANS   OF  INTERCOMMUNI 
CATION. 

1.  Canals 192 

2.  Steamboats  and  Steamships 194 


CONTENTS.  V 

8.     Railroads 204 

4.  Electro-Magnetic  Telegraph 208 

5.  Post-Offices 213 

CHAPTER    VI. 
PROGRESS    OF    SCIENCE. 

1.  Science  the  Handmaid  of  Religion 216 

2.  Astronomy 221 

3.  Chemistry 228 

4.  Mineralogy  and  Geology 236 

5.  Botany 246 

6.  Zoology 250 

7.  Meteorological  Observations 252 

8.  Phrenology 261 

9.  The  Smithsonian  Institute 266 

CHAPTER    VII. 
INVENTIONS,  ARTS,   AND    MANUFACTURES. 

1.  Inventions • 270 

2.  Daguerreotype 274 

3.  Manufactures,  Cotton,  Woollen,  Silk,  and  India-Rubber...  277 

4.  Miscellaneous  Manufactures 285 

5.  American  Art-Union 290 

6.  Letheon,  or  Sulphuric  Ether,  Chloroform,  Gun-Cotton,  &c.  293 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
CHRISTIAN    BENEVOLENCE. 

1.  The  Monthly  Concert  of  Prayer 299 

2.  Foreign  Missions 301 


a 


-v 


VI  CONTENTS. 

3.  Home  Missions 315 

4.  American  Bible  Society 321 

5.  Tract  Societies 329 

6.  Societies  for  the  Moral  and  Religious  Benefit  of  Seamen. . .  335 

7.  Jewish  and  Protestant  Societies 337 

8.  Benevolence  of  the  Age 339 

CHAPTER    IX. 
RELIGIOUS    CONTROVERSIES. 

1.  Unitarianism 345 

2.  New  Measures 355 

3.  The  Connecticut  Controversy 364. 

4.  The  Presbyterian  Church 371 

5.  The  latest  Controversy 386 

6.  Subjects  of  Controversy  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  390 

CHAPTER    X. 
NEW  RELIGIOUS    SECTS. 

1.  Mormons,  or  Latter-Day  Saints 394 

2.  Millerism,  or  Second  Adventism 401 

3.  New  Sheets,  mostly  evangelical 406 

CHAPTER    XI. 
MISCELLANIES. 

1.  Exploring  Expeditions 418 

2.  Diseases 419 

3.  New  Systems  of  Medicine 424 

4.  Rural  Cemeteries 428 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


5.  Supplying  Cities  with.  Water 431 

6.  Ice  Trade 433 

7.  Famines  at  the  Cape  Yerd  Islands  and  in  Ireland 436 

8.  Literary  and  Scientific  Associations 438 


APPENDIX. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law 443 

Eleventh  Asteroid 443 

Deaths  of  European  Sovereigns 444 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


THE  question  was  gravely  discussed  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  year,  (1850,) 
whether  this  is  the  last  of  the  first  half,  or  the 
first  of  the  last  half,  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Many  maintained  that  the  half  century  was 
complete  at  the  end  of  1849,  and  a  few  semi 
centennial  sermons  were  then  preached.  For  a 
time,  there  was  reason  to  fear  that  all  the  enthu 
siasm  which  the  completion  of  a  half  century 
excites  would  be  used  up  before  the  set  time  for 
the  appearance  of  this  volume  had  arrived. 

There  was  a  similar  discussion  at  the  close  of 
1799;  many  supposed  the  eighteenth  century 
was  then  complete,  and  that  the  year  1800  was 
the  beginning  of  a  new  century.  On  the  1st  of 
January,  1801,  an  editor  of  a  newspaper  said, — 

"  Precisely  twelve  o'clock  last  night 
The  eighteenth  century  took  its  flight. 
Full  many  a  calculating  head 
Has  racked  its  brains,  its  ink  has  shed, 


X  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

To  prove,  by  metaphysics  fine, 
A  hundred  means  but  ninety-nine  ; 
"While  at  their  wisdom  others  wondered, 
But  took  one  more  to  make  a  hundred." 

The  half  century  that  is  now  so  nearly  com 
pleted  has  been,  on  man}^  accounts,  the  most 
remarkable  the  world  has  ever  known.  The 
progress  of  liberty,  education,  and  religion  has 
been  very  great.  Intellectual  and  moral  culture 
and  the  arts  of  civilized  life  have  received  a  new 
impulse. 

It  seemed  to  me  that  I  should  perform  a  good 
service  to  my  countrymen  if  I  should  post  up  the 
books  and  present  a  condensed  view  of  those 
events  which,  at  the  time,  excited  the  most  gen 
eral  interest,  and  of  those  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  our  social  condition.  It  has  re 
quired  much  patient  toil  to  collect  so  many  facts 
and  dates  as  the  reader  will  find  in  the  following- 
pages,  and  to  put  each  in  its  appropriate  place. 
I  have  sometimes  found  it  difficult  to  know  what 
to  omit  and  what  to  insert.  Many,  probably, 
will  think  that  undue  prominence  has  been  given 
to  some  things,  and  too  little  to  others.  In  reply 
to  those  whose  complaints  respecting  omissions 
and  deficiencies  I  anticipate,  I  would  say  that 
few  men  have  time  enough  to  spare  from  their 
daily  occupation  to  keep^themselves  fully  informed 


AUTHOR'S   PREFACE.  XI 


of  all  that  is  doing  in  all  the  departments  of  lit 
erature  and  science,  of  arts  and  manufactures, 
and  of  politics  and  religion,  so  as  to  write  a  per 
fect  history  of  them  all.  I  have  done  what  I 
could,  and  will  ask  the  reader  to  consider  how 
much  of  the  ground  has  been  surveyed,  before 
he  censures  me  for  not  having  surveyed  the 
whole. 

I  fully  intended,  in  the  plan  I  at  first  marked 
out,  to  have  given  some  prominence  to  natural, 
intellectual,  and  moral  philosophy,  and  also  to 
agriculture ;  but  the  time  has  passed,  and  I  find 
myself  obliged  to  omit  these  topics  entirely.  I 
leave  them  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  be 
gleaners  in  the  field. 

Some  may  wonder  why  a  subject  so  marvellous 
as  animal  magnetism  should  not  have  received 
even  a  passing  notice.  If  they  will  begin  with 
the  lectures  of  Charles  Poyen,  in  1834,  and  at 
tempt  to  trace  its  metamorphoses  through  pathe- 
tism,  clairvoyance,  and  spiritual  knockings,  and 
fix  the  date  of  each  new  development,  and  its 
connection  with  the  first  principle  from  which  it 
started,  they  will  guess  the  reason  why  it  has 
been  passed  in  silence. 

The  author  flatters  himself  that  there  is  enough 
in  this  volume  to  render  it  highly  acceptable  and 


Xll  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

useful  to  every  scholar,  to  every  professional  man, 
to  every  business  man,  and  to  every  family,  in 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 

I  have  endeavored  to  treat  every  man  and 
every  class  of  men  and  their  sentiments  fairly  and 
kindly.  It  is  a  very  delicate  task  to  write  a  his 
tory  of  controverted  subjects,  and  present  the 
facts  in  such  a  manner  that  all  concerned  will 
feel  that  justice  has  been  done  them.  Perhaps 
those  who  may  charge  me  with  giving  a  wrong 
view  of  their  opinions,  or  of  those  of  their 
friends,  would  themselves  have  erred  in  the  oppo 
site  direction  if  they  had  written  on  the  same 
subject.  "  To  err  is  human  ;  "  but  I  am  con 
soled  with  the  thought,  that  I  have  not  know 
ingly  misrepresented  any  one,  nor  "set  down 
aught  in  malice." 

E.  DAVIS. 

WESTFIELD,  October  28,  1850. 


INTRODUCTION, 

BY  MARK  HOPKINS,  D.  D. 


CENTURIES  and  half  centuries  are  periods  of  time 
neither  indicated  by  any  movement  in  the  heavens, 
nor  coinciding  with  any  distinct  eras  in  the  political 
or  religious  history  of  the  world.  They  are  arbi 
trary  divisions  of  the  one  continuous  movement  of 
nature  and  of  time,  by  which  we  are  enabled  the 
better  to  group  and  study  successive  events. 

But  these  divisions;  though  arbitrary,  have  the 
same  effect  upon  the  mind  as  if  they  were  natural. 
They  enter  into  all  our  conceptions  of  past  ages  ; 
they  are  made  the  landmarks  of  history ;  and  they 
have  so  far  affected  the  imagination,  that  those  have 
not  been  wanting  who  have  assigned  to  each  century 
its  own  particular  "  mission."  This  is  doubtless  fan 
ciful  ;  still  coincidences,  more  or  less  striking,  do 
occur,  and  among  these  may  be  reckoned  that  be 
tween  the  opening  and  progress  of  the  present 
6 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

century,  and  a  distinct  era  in  the  history  of  human 
affairs.  Making  every  allowance  for  our  proximity 
in  time,  and  for  our  tendency  to  magnify  what  has 
relation  to  ourselves,  we  yet  cannot  be  mistaken  in 
supposing  the  past  half  century  to  be  among  the 
most  remarkable  in  all  time.  Should  any  one  be 

inclined    to    doubt    this,  we  will  only  commend  to 

\ 
him  the  perusal  of  the  following  work. 

The  movements  which  have  rendered  the  past 
half  century  remarkable,  have  apparently  arisen  from 
the  struggling  up  into  the  distinct  consciousness  of 
the  community  of  three  ideas,  and  from  attempts, 
more  or  less  definite,  to  realize  those  ideas. 

Society,  in  its  growth  and  progress,  was  compared 
by  Lord  Bacon  to  a  child,  whose  experience  and 
wisdom  accumulate  as  his  years  increase.  The  same 
comparison  will  hold  in  another  respect.  There  is  a 
period  when  the  energies  and 'tendencies  of  the  child 
are  mere  blind  forces,  put  forth  instinctively ;  and  it 
is  an  era  in  the  history  of  every  individual  when  he 
takes  conscious  possession  of  his  powers,  and  begins 
to  direct  them  intelligently  to  the  accomplishment 
of  a  chosen  end.  In  the  same  way,  there  are  often 
great  ideas  and  strong  tendencies  at  work  in  society, 
like  leaven,  long  before  they  come  into  the  distinct 
consciousness  of  the  masses,  and  before  the  age  fully 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 

understands  the  objects  it  would  realize.  At  times, 
such,  ideas  and  tendencies  find  free  scope,  but  more 
frequently  they  are  overlaid  by  old  forms,  or  degrad 
ing  superstitions,  or  oppressive  exactions.  They  then 
show  themselves  only  by  indefinite  yearnings,  by 
sighings,  as  under  a  hard  bondage,  till  they  gather 
strength ;  and  at  length  some  Moses  gives  them  utter 
ance  and  guidance,  and  society  passes  on,  through 
seas  of  difficulty,  to  its  desired  Exodus. 

In  such  cases,  if  the  tendency  is  towards  a  moral 
object,  and  the  highest  which  man  can  pursue,  then 
it  will  embrace  within  its  sweep  all  subordinate  ob 
jects,  and  lead  on  to  a  true  and  an  indefinite  progress. 
It  will  originate  a  movement  that  will  never  cease. 
But  if  the  tendency  is  towards  any  thing  selfish  or 
partial,  or  inadequate  to  meet  the  full  wants  of  our 
nature,  then,  however  high  the  movement  may  rise, 
however  broadly  it  may  extend,  whatever  elements 
and  forms  of  civilization  it  may  imbosom  within 
itself,  it  must  yet  find  its  limit  and  subside  ;  the 
forms  through  which  its  life  has  circulated  must  be 
broken  up,  the  incrustations  of  the  old  lava  must  be 
disintegrated,  and  go  to  form  the  soil  for  a  new  and 
permanent  growth.  . 

Hitherto  the  history  of  the  world  has  been  but  the 
history  of  such  isolated  and  partial  movements,  the 


XVI  INTRODUCTION. 

most  of  which  have  not  tended  at  all  towards  the 
true  end  of  the  race,  and  in  all  of  which  the  limits 
and  conditions  of  the  globe,  and  the  relations  of  its 
different  races,  have  been  but  very  imperfectly 
known.  But  when  America  had  been  discovered, 
when  the  globe  had  been  circumnavigated,  when 
emotions  of  curiosity  and  wonder,  and  dreams  of 
El  Dorados,  and  mad  schemes  of  conquest  had  given 
place  to  a  sober  survey  of  the  earth  as  it  is,  then 
there  began  to  be  felt,  the  inspiration  of  a  higher 
idea,  the  possibility  of  a  nobler  end,  than  had  before 
been  conceived.  Christianity  has,  indeed,  always 
proposed  to  herself  the  subjugation  of  the  world ;  but 
she  had  practically  fallen  back  from  her  undertaking, 
not  knowing  the  extent  or  character  of  her  field. 
Gradually  these  were  opening  upon  her,  until  about 
the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  when  the 
command  of  Christ,  interpreted  by  modern  discov 
eries,  began  to  work  in  the  heart  of  the  church.  This, 
though  as  yet  far  from  assuming  the  place  and  creat 
ing  the  movement  it  ought,  is  still  to  be  regarded  as 
the  central  idea.  Every  thing  tends  to  show  that 
this  is  to  be  the  ultimate  result  of  God's  plan;  but 
there  are  other  ideas,  which  began  about  the  begin 
ning  of  the  present  century  to  come  into  the  distinct 
comprehension  of  the  masses,  which,  though  subor- 


INTRODUCTION.  XV11 

dinate  to  this,  may  just  now  seem  to  be  playing  a 
more  conspicuous  part  in  human  affairs. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  idea  of  the  subjugation 
of  the  powers  of  nature  to  the  use  of  man.  In  the 
earlier  ages,  the  powers  of  nature  were  regarded  with 
dread,  and  the  occasional  manifestation  of  those  ter 
rific  energies  by  which  alone  they  are  capable  of 
such  effective  service,  was  -the  source  of  superstitious 
terror.  Within  the  present  century,  scientific  pur 
suits  were  generally  regarded  as  merely  theoretical. 
But  now  men  view  with  wild  delight  and  unlimited 
expectations  this  new  inheritance  of  the  race.  Hith 
erto,  this  has  been  as  effectually  concealed  as  was 
formerly  this  continent ;  but  now  it  opens  upon  us 
with  mines  of  wealth  and  power,  with  means  of 
enjoyment  and  progress,  far  surpassing  any  thing 
that  could  be  furnished  by  the  gold  and  silver  of  the 
new  world. 

As  this  application  of  science  to  the  arts  has  gone 
on,  it  has  effected  a  silent  and  gradual,  but  a  mighty, 
revolution.  The  world  of  to-day  is  not  that  of  fifty 
or  twenty-five  years  ago.  Enterprise  has  found  new 
fields,  and  capital  new  channels.  Old  implements, 
and  machinery,  and  forms  of  industry  are  super 
seded;  the  habits  of  social  and  domestic  life  are 

changed;  the  power  to  effect  exchanges,  whether  of 
b* 


XVJ11  INTRODUCTION. 

merchandise  or  thought,  is  vastly  augmented ;  and 
so  intimate  is  the  connection  becoming  between  dif 
ferent  parts  of  the  country,  that  we  can  almost  fancy 
these  vast  states  to  be  but  a  single  body,  pervaded  by 
one  sympathetic  nerve,  and  capable  of  being  simul 
taneously  moved  by  the  same  electric  flash  of 
thought.  Already  have  the  dreams  of  imagination 
been  transcended,  and  yet  the  impression  and  belief 
is,  that  we  have  but  just  commenced  this  grand 
career. 

A  second  idea,  the  attempt  to  realize  which  has 
caused  extensive  movement  within  the  last  half  cen 
tury,  is  that  of  the  liberty  and  rights  of  the  individ 
ual  man.  In  the  ancient  republics,  and  generally  in 
monarchies,  the  individual  has  been  regarded  as  com 
paratively  nothing.  He  was  for  the  state.  Now, 
the  idea  is  finding  its  way  that  the  state  is  for  the 
individual.  As  man  himself  is  the  highest  product 
of  this  lower  world,  those  institutions  would  seem  to 
be  the  best  which  show,  not  the  most  imposing  re 
sults  of  aggregated  labor,  but  humanity  itself,  in  its 
most  general  cultivation  and  highest  forms. 

This  idea  finds  its  origin  and  support  in  the  value 
which  Christianity  puts  upon  the  individual,  and,  fully 
carried  out,  must  overturn  all  systems  of  darkness  and 
mere  authority.  Individual  liberty  and  responsibility 


INTRODUCTION.  .  XIX 


involve  the  right  of  private  judgment ;  this  involves 
the  right  to  all  the  light  necessary  to  form  a  correct 
judgment ;  and  this  again  must  involve  the  education 
of  the  people,  and  the  overthrow  of  every  thing, 
civil  and  religious,  which  will  not  stand  the  ordeal 
of  the  most  scrutinizing  examination  and  of  the 
freest  discussion. 

This  idea  might  doubtless  be  realized  in  a  good 
degree  under  a  monarchy ;  but  with  the  purposes, 
usages,  and  modes  of  administration  commonly  con 
nected  with  that  form  of  government,  it  could  not. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  a  struggle,  and  of  those  civil 
revolutions  which  have  been  so  conspicuous  during 
a  portion  of  the  past  half  century.  Old  forms  of 
government,  as  they  existed  and  were  administered, 
were  to  the  progress  of  this  movement  what  old  im 
plements,  and  machinery,  and  forms  of  industry  were 
to  the  progress  of  that  already  noticed. 

A  third  class  of  movements,  which  have  been  con 
spicuous  during  the  last  half  century,  have  been  the 
benevolent  and  reformatory.  These,  so  far  as  they 
are  legitimate,  spring  from  the  conscience,  and  their 
object  is  to  bring  human  conduct  and  institutions 
into  conformity  with  the  idea  of  right.  This,  natu 
ral  conscience  would  tend  to  do ;  but  it  is  only  as  it 
is  quickened  by  Christianity  that  it  can  aggregate 


XX  INTRODUCTION. 

individuals  into  organizations,  and  lead  to  systematic, 
protracted,  and  self-denying  effort.  This  has  been 
done,  and  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  past  half  cen 
tury  has  been  the  existence  of  those  voluntary  asso 
ciations,  apart  from  the  church,  which  have  it  for 
their  object  to  remedy  particular  evils,  or  to  accom 
plish  particular  good  ends,  aside  from  that  general 
and  radical  reformation  of  men  which  Christianity 
contemplates.  In  some  cases,  as  in  missionary 
boards,  where  the  object  is  the  same  with  that  of 
the  church,  these  organizations  have  been  adopted 
for  the  greater  convenience  of  transacting  busi 
ness,  and  to  unite  different  denominations  of 
Christians  in  one  common  effort,  but  generally  a 
specific  and  less  comprehensive  effort  has  been  pro 
posed. 

That  this  form  of  effort  should  give  rise  to  men 
of  one  idea,  to  something  of  enthusiasm  and  fanati 
cism,  of  display  and  self-seeking,  under  the  pretence 
of  religion,  was,  perhaps,  to  be  expected ;  but  it  has 
also  given  a  powerful  impulse  to  thought,  has  called 
out  the  affections  and  energies  of  multitudes  of  the 
wisest  and  best  men  in  Christendom,  and  has,  thus 
far,  we  doubt  not,  resulted  in  a  vast  preponderance 
of  good.  These  movements  are  still  going  on,  and, 
if  continued  with  a  wise  subordination  to  the  great 


INTRODUCTION.  XXI 

end  of  Christianity,  we  see  no  reason  why  they  may 
not  go  on  till  that  end  is  realized. 

In  each  of  these  movements,  as  the  new  has  strug 
gled  with  the  old,  there  has  been  great  diversity  of 
views  respecting  the  immediate  ends  to  be  pursued, 
and  the  best  means  of  pursuing  them.  Some  have 
clung  to  old  forms  and  organizations  with  a  stupid 
conservatism  ;  others,  from  an  exaggerated  view  of 
the  importance  of  reform,  have  attacked  old  organi 
zations  with  a  mad  and  reckless  spirit ;  while  the 
lovers  of  real  progress,  of  true  liberty,  and  of  a  pure 
and  spiritual  worship,  have  sought  to  reform  existing 
evils  through  a  reformation  of  individual  character, 
and  have  borne  onward  the  banner  of  a  rational  and 
feasible  progress. 

The  first  and  second  of  these  general  movements 
might  be  consummated,  and  the  third  also  in  any 
one  of  its  forms,  and  yet  not  insure  that  triumph  of 
Christianity  in  which  alone  the  perfection  of  society 
is  involved.  Still,  these  movements  are  a  natural, 
and  almost  necessary,  preparation  for  such  a  triumph. 
Just  in  proportion  as  steamships,  steam  presses,  rail 
roads,  and  telegraphs  can  be  made  instruments  of 
evil,  they  can  also  be  made  efficient  for  the  removal 
of  ignorance,  and  the  speedy  destruction  of  old  sys 
tems  of  superstition,  and  of  every  form  of  civil  and 


XX11  INTRODUCTION. 

ecclesiastical  tyranny.  Just  in  proportion  as  the  indi 
vidual  man  throws  off  particular  vices  and  evils,  and 
becomes  enlightened  and  free,"  does  he  become  the 
better  fitted  to  receive  those  influences  of  Christian 
ity  through  which  alone  our  perfect  manhood  can 
now  find  its  consummation.  Thus,  while  Christian 
ity,  as  we  believe,  so  underlies  each  of  these  move 
ments  that  without  it  they  could  not  have  reached 
their  present  power,  they,  in  their  turn,  contribute  to 
its  advancement.  It  is  as  the  ocean  to  these  rivers 
of  reform.  They  come  originally  from  it,  and  "unto 
the  place  from  whence  the  rivers  come  thither  they 


return  again.' 


As  has  been  said,  the  force  of  these  movements  is 
not  yet  spent.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  they  must  go  on  with  increasing 
power,  and  that  the  future  history  of  the  world  will 
very  much  depend  on  the  purity,  wisdom,  and  skill 
of  those  by  whom  they  shall  be  guided.  But  to 
such  wisdom  and  skill,  purity  of  purpose  being  sup 
posed,  nothing  can  contribute  so  much  as  a  full  his 
tory  of  past  mistakes,  of  what  has  been  attempted, 
and  what  has  been  done. 

Hence,  it  was  a  happy  idea  to  give  the  statistics, 
and,  so  far  as  may  be.  the  principles  and  spirit,  of 
these  great  movements  during  the  past  half  century, 


INTRODUCTION.  xxiii 

in  which  they  have  all  either  originated,  or  received 
so  much  of  impulse  and  augmentation.  If  the  time 
had  come  when,  in  one  of  these  departments  a  year 
book  of  facts  was  called  for,  it  was  surely  time  to 
gather  the  scattered  fragments  of  their  early  history, 
and  to  give  the  facts  respecting  each;  thus  giving 
guidance  to  the  practical  man,  and  enabling  the 
future  historian  and  philosopher  to  place  them  in 
their  mutual  relations. 

Such  is  the  object  of  the  following  work,  and,  if 
properly  executed,  there  is  no  class  of  persons  by 
whom  it  may  not  be  read  with  great  interest  and 
profit.  That  the  work  has  been  properly  executed 
I  believe,  both  from  an  examination  of  portions  of 
it,  and  from  my  acquaintance  with  the  author.  It 
will,  I  am  confident,  be  found  to  be  so  characterized 
by  the  richness  of  material,  the  accuracy,  the  candor, 
and  the  sound  judgment  which  are  appropriate  to 
such  a  work,  as  to  make  it  highly  valuable,  both 
now  and  in  coming  time. 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGE,  October  1,  1850. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

POLITICAL  CHANGES  AND   EVENTS. 


SECTION  1.    In  the  United  States. 

MOST  of  those  who,  fifty  years  ago,  were  the  lead 
ing  men  in  public  affairs,  and  filled  places  of  respon 
sibility  and  influence  in  this  nation,  have  been  laid 
in  their  graves,  or  are  sinking  down  under  a  weight 
of  years.  Those  who  now  stand  at  the  helm,  both 
of  our  national  and  state  governments,  at  the  com 
mencement  of  this  century  were  in  their  boyhood,  or 
in  early  manhood ;  while  many,  who  are  acting 
important  parts  on  the  stage  of  life,  are  less  than  half 
a  century  old. 

I  propose,  in  this  section,  to  present  a  brief  outline 
of  the  changes  that  have  been  made  in  our  geo 
graphical  boundaries,  and  in  the  number  of  states, 
during  the  period  under  review,  together  with  a  brief 
notice  of  those  events,  which,  at  the  time,  excited 
the  deepest  and  most  general  interest. 
1 


2  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

My  object  is  not  to  enter  into  the  minute  details  of 
these  events,  nor  to  discuss  particularly  the  policy  of 
different  political  measures,  but  simply  to  narrate,  as  a 
chronicler  of  the  past,  the  leading  facts,  with  the 
dates  and  the  names  of  the  principal  actors. 

I  will  ask  the  reader  to  compare  what  is  with  what 
W£s,  and  judg-y  for  himself  whether  any  progress 
has  been,  made  m  civiihation  and  social  reform. 

Some  events,  which  the  reader  may  expect  to 
find  in  this  section,  will  be  introduced  into  subse 
quent  chapters  ;  and  some,"  no  doubt,  which  ought  to 
have  a  place,  will  be  omitted. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  the 
middle  of  the  Mississippi  River  was  the  western  boun 
dary  of  the  Union  — but  now  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Our 
southern  boundary  was  the  northern  limit  of  the  31° 
of  north  latitude  arid  St.  Mary's  River  —  but  now  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  superficial  area  of  the  United  States  was 
then  1,000,000  square  miles  —  it  is  now  3,250,000. 

The  following  additions  have  been  made  to  our 
territory,  in  the  manner  and  at  the  times  specified : 
In  1803,  the  United  States  bought  of  France  all 
that  portion  of  our  country  that  is  bounded  north  by 
the  British  possessions,  east  by  the  Mississippi  River, 
south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
and  Upper  California,  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  price  paid  for  it  was  $15,000.000;  it  was  called 
the  Louisiana  Territory,  and  contained  1,540,000 
square  miles. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  3 

The  tract  of  country  situated  between  the  Iberville 
and  Perdido  Rivers,  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mex 
ico  to  the  northern  limit  of  the  31°  north  latitude, 
having  an  area  of  30,000  square  miles,  was  claimed  by 
our  government  as  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase. 
It  was  undoubtedly  the  property  of  Spain  ;  and  though 
it  was  very  desirable  we  should  have  it,  we  had,  I 
suppose,  no  legal  claim  to  it.  Many  American  fami 
lies  had  settled  upon  it,  and,  in  the  summer  of  1810, 
they  declared  themselves  an  independent  state  ;  and, 
in  October,  the  president  issued  a  proclamation,  de 
claring  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  United  States. 

In  1819,  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
Spanish  and  American  commissioners,  by  which  it 
was  stipulated  that  Spain  should  cede  to  the  States 
the  whole  of  Florida,  as  an  indemnity  for  spoliations 
upon  our  commerce.  The  king  of  Spain  refused 
at  first  to  ratify  the  treaty.  He  finally  did  ratify  k, 
and  our  government  took  formal  possession  of  it  July 
10,  1821. 

In  1845,  Texas,  having  become  independent,  ap 
plied  to  be  admitted  as  one  of  the  United  States. 
She  was  accordingly  received,  much  against  the  will 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  people.  The  details  of  the 
history  of  the  annexation  of  this  territory  may  be 
found  in  Jay's  and  Livermore's  Histories  of  the  Mex 
ican  War.  If  Texas  is  understood  to  be  bounded 
west  by  the  Rio  Grande,  it  contains  325,520  square 
miles. 

At   the   conclusion  of  the   Mexican  war,  Mexico 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


ceded  to  the  United  States  New  Mexico  and  Upper 
California,  which  contains  526,078  square  miles. 

In  January,  1801,  there  were  in  the  Union  sixteen 
States,  since  which  fifteen  have  been  added :  — 


Ohio,  Nov.  29,1802. 

Louisiana,  April  30,  1811. 

Indiana,  Dec.  11,  1816. 

Mississippi,  Dec.  10,  1817. 

Illinois,  Dec.  3,  1818. 

Alabama,  Dec.  14,  1819. 

Maine,  March  16,  1820. 


Arkansas,  June  15,  1836- 
Michigan,             "         «      " 

Florida,  May       3,  1845. 
Iowa,  «          "      " 

Texas,  Dec.  29,     " 

Wisconsin,  May  29,  1848. 

California,  Sept      7,  1850. 


Missouri,  Aug.    10,  1820. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  states  that  have  been 
admitted  have  been  alternately  free  and  slave  states. 

An  act  establishing  the  territorial  government  of 
Oregon  was  approved  by  Congress,  August  14,  1848, 
and  another  establishing  the  territorial  government 
of  Minesota  was  approved  March  3,  1849.  The 
territorial  government  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah  was 
established  September  7,  1850. 

In  the  year  1800,  the  seat  of  government  was  re 
moved  from  Philadelphia  to  the  city  of  Washington, 
where  the  last  session  of  the  last  Congress  of  John 
Adams's  administration  was  holden.  In  his  opening 
address,  the  president  said,  "  It  would  be  unbecoming 
the  representatives  of  this  nation  to  assemble  for  the 
first  time  in  this  solemn  temple,  without  looking  up 
to  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  universe,  and  imploring 
his  blessing.  May  this  territory  be  the  residence  of 
virtue  and  happiness.  In  this  city,  may  that  piety 
and  virtue,  that  wisdom  and  magnanimity,  that  conr 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  5 

stancy  and  self-government,  which  adorned  the  great 
character  whose  name  it  bears,  be  forever  held  in 
veneration." 

The  political  excitement  growing  out  of  the  election 
of  president,  in  the  year  1800,  was  very  great.  John 
Adams  and  Thomas  Jetferson  were  the  candidates. 
The  friends  of  the  former  were  denounced  by  those 
of  the  latter,  as  the  allies  of  England,  arid  as  paying 
homage  to  British  power  ;  while  those  of  the  latter 
were  called  the  allies  of  France,  and  were  accused  of 
preparing  the  way  to  corrupt  the  morals  of  the  nation, 
and  to  destroy  its  liberties.  They  were  known  by 
the  distinctive  names  of  Federalists  and  Democrats. 

The  French  had  aided  us  in  the  war  of  the  revolu 
tion,  arid  were  themselves  then  in  the  midst  of  a 
revolutionary  struggle.  They  had  just  adopted  a 
constitution  with  a  consular  government,  at  the  head 
of  which  was  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  England  had 
declared  war  against  France,  and  the  latter  wished  us 
to  pay  the  debt  of  our  gratitude  by  aiding  her  in  her 
conflict.  A  strong  sympathy  was  felt  in  this  country 
for  the  French  people  ;  they  were  looked  upon  as 
engaged  in  a  struggle  for  liberty,  and  the  Americans 
very  naturally  wished  them  success.  The  national 
vanity  of,  not  a  few  was  flattered  by  the  persuasion 
that  the  spark  which  lighted  the  flame  of  liberty  there 
was  taken  from  our  altar  ;  or,  as  Franklin  said,  "  the 
French,  having  served  an  apprenticeship  in  America, 
had  set  up  for  themselves."  On  the  other  hand, 
there  were  many  who  feared  the  influence  of  French 


6  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

infidelity,  the  seeds  of  which  had  already  been  wide 
ly  disseminated  in  this  country.  The  electioneering 
articles  of  that  year,  on  both  sides,  were  exceedingly 
severe,  and  abounded  in  extravagant  expressions. 
Jefferson  was  elected  by  a  majority  of  eight  votes, 
and  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  office  March  4, 
1801,  and  was  reflected  in  1805,  by  a  majority  of 
one  hundred  and  forty-eight  electoral  votes. 

June  10,  1801,  Congress  declared  war  against 
Tripoli  for  piratical  depredations  upon  our  commerce. 
Other  nations  had  been  accustomed  to  pay  the  Barbary 
powers  an  annual  tribute  to  keep  them  quiet.  Our 
nation  was  the  first  that  set  the  example  of  refusing 
tribute,  and  obliging  them  to  respect  its  flag.  A  fleet 
was  sent  to  cruise  off  the  coast.  General  William 
Eaton,  of  Brimfield,  Mass.,  then  consul  at  Tunis,  led 
a  company  of  Egyptian  troops,  furnished  by  a  brother 
of  the  reigning  pacha,  over  the  desert,  in  a  long  and 
wearisome  march,  and  took  the  city  of  Derne.  He 
repulsed  the  pacha  of  Tripoli,  and  'concluded  with 
him  a  treaty  of  peace  in  1805. 

July  11,  1804,  Alexander  Hamilton  was  killed  in 
a  duel,  at  Hoboken,  near  New  York,  by  Aaron  Burr, 
vice-president  of  the  United  States.  Hamilton  had 
said  he  regarded  Burr  as  "a  dangerous  man,  and  one 
who  ought  not  to  be  trusted  with  the  affairs  of  the 
government."  The  truth  of  the  remark  was  made 
manifest  by  Burr's  subsequent  conduct.  On  retiring 
from  office,  in  March,  1805,  he  became  a  wanderer  in 
the  Western  States,  and  seemed  evidently  to  be 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  7 

endeavoring  to  carry  into  effect  some  great  design, 
the  character  of  which  was  not  certainly  known. 
He  made  Blenerhasset's  Island,  in  the  Ohio  River, 
the  place  of  rendezvous,  and  by  his  intrigues  blasted 
the  hopes  of  Blenerhasset's  family.  He  there  fitted 
out  boats  furnished  with  armed  men,  and  sent  them 
down  the  river.  It  was  supposed  that  he  had  con 
ceived  the  design  of  uniting  Florida  and  the  regions 
west  of  the  Alleghanies  into  a  separate  government, 
and  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  it.  He  was  arrested 
in  Mississippi,  February  19,  1807,  and  tried  before 
the  Circuit  Court  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  on  the 
charge  of  high  treason.  The  trial  was  continued  by 
adjournment  until  August,  when  the  jury  rendered  a 
verdict  "  not  guilty."  William  Wirt,  of  Virginia,  ad 
dressed  the  jury  in  support  of  the  charge,  and  made 
one  of  the  most  eloquent  speeches  ever  delivered  in 
a  court-room. 

The  conclusion  to  which  an  unprejudiced  commu 
nity  have  come  in  relation  to  that  matter  is,  that 
Burr  had  no  treasonable  designs ;  that  he  owned 
lands  on  the  Washita  River,  which  were  forfeited 
unless  they  should  be  settled  before  a  given  time  ; 
that  he  was  about  to  commence  a  settlement  upon 
them,  and  the  armed  force  was  fitted  out  for  its  pro 
tection.  After  this,  Burr  sunk  into  comparative  ob 
scurity,  and  so  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 

Another  event  of  this  period  was  the  "  Miranda 
expedition."  Miranda,  a  Spaniard,  and  grandson  of 
the  governor  of  Caraccas,  South  America,  planned  an 


8  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

expedition  against  Caraccas  for  the  conquest  of  the 
country  and  the  establishment  of  a  republican  gov 
ernment.  He  went  to  Washington  in  December, 

1805,  where  he  had  an  interview  with  the  president 
and  secretary  of  state.     Though  they  did  not  assist 
him,  it  was  believed  that  they  favored  his  design  ; 
for  he  returned  to  New  York,  and  publicly  fitted  out 
an  expedition.     He  purchased  a  ship,  the  Leander, 
and,  being  joined  by  one  hundred  and  eighty  Ameri 
cans,  sailed  for  South  America  in  the  early  part  of 

1806.  At  St.  Domingo,  he  chartered  two  schooners, 
which  were  captured  off  the  coast  of  South  America. 
In  August  he  landed  in  Venezuela,  but  did  not  suc 
ceed  in   rousing  the  inhabitants,  and  was  compelled 
to  reembark.     Most  of  the  Americans  who   enlisted 
in   this   enterprise   were    finally  lodged   in   Spanish 
dungeons,  where  many  of  them  died. 

About  this  time,  a  storm  was  seen  to  be  gathering 
in  the  political  heavens,  which  threatened  to  involve 
this  country  in  a  war  with  England.  In  May,  1806, 
Great  Britain  declared  the  continent  of  Europe,  from 
the  Elbe  to  Brest,  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade.  No 
vember  21,  Napoleon,  seated  in  the  palace  of  the 
vanquished  king  of  Prussia,  at  Berlin,  issued  his 
famous  Berlin  decree,  declaring  the  British  Isles  in  a 
state  of  blockade  ;  by  which  the  vessels  of  neutral 
nations,  going  to  or  from  England,  were  liable  to  be 
captured.  January  7,  1807,  the  British  government, 
by  way  of  retaliation,  issued  an  order  of  council, 
which  prohibited  neutral  powers  from  trading  from 


THE"  HALF  CENTURY.  9 

one  port  to  another  of  France,  or  her  allies,  or  with 
any  country  with  which  England  might  not  trade. 
November  11,  1807,  another  order  of  council  was 
issued,  which  prohibited  all  neutral  nations  from 
trading  with  France  or  her  allies,  unless  they  would 
pay  tribute  to  England. 

Previous  to  this  last  restriction  upon  commerce,  an 
event  occurred  which  produced  a  great  excitement. 
June  22,  1807,  the  United  States'  frigate  Chesapeake, 
having  just  left  the  shores  of  the  United  States  for 
the  Mediterranean,  was  hailed  by  a  British  ship  of 
war,  the  commanding  officer  of  which  was  directed 
to  search  it  for  British  deserters.  English  seamen 
could  obtain  higher  wages  abroad  than  at  home,  and 
England,  being  at  war  with  France,  needed  more 
sailors,  and  claimed  the  right  of  taking  them  where 
she  could  find  them,  and  obliging  them  to  serve  in  her 
navy.  The  commander  of  the  Chesapeake  refused 
to  submit  to  be  searched ;  whereupon  the  British  ship 
commenced  a  cannonade,  forced  submission,  and  took 
from  the  American  ship  four  seamen.  This  outrage 
produced  a  great  excitement ;  and,  on  July  2,  the 
president  issued  a  proclamation,  shutting  the  harbors 
and  waters  of  the  United  States  against  all  British 
ships  of  war. 

December,  17,  1807,  Napoleon,  then  at  Milan, 
issued  a  decree,  declaring  that  every  vessel  that  should 
submit  to  be  searched,  or  to  pay  tribute  to  England, 
should  be  seized,  if  found  in  any  of  the  waters  or 
harbors  of  France. 


10  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

December  22,  Congress  laid  an  embargo,  prohibit 
ing  any  American  vessel  from  sailing  to  any  foreign 
port.  The  democratic  party  approved  of  the  embar 
go,  and  looked  upon  this  affair  of  the  Chesapeake, 
taken  in  connection  with  some  other  invasions  of 
our  rights  by  England,  as  almost  sufficient  to  justify 
the  declaration  of  war.  The  correspondence  between 
James  Monroe  and  George  Canning,  published  in  the 
papers  in  1808,  will  give  the  views  entertained  re 
specting  it  by  the  rulers  of  each  nation.  The  Fed 
eralists  were  warmly  opposed  to  the  embargo,  and 
saw  no  necessity  for  a  war  with  England  on  account 
of  the  affair  of  the  Chesapeake,  or  the  right  claimed 
by  England  to  search  for  deserted  seamen. 

The  Federalists  believed  that  Jefferson  wished  to 
destroy  the  American  navy  and  commerce,  and  that 
he  was  hostile  to  merchants,  as  a  class.  They  were 
willing  to  believe,  that  he  laid  the  embargo  upon 
American  vessels  as  much  for  the  purpose  of  crippling 
our  commerce,  as  for  shielding  it  from  the  disasters  that 
might  befall  it  from  the  execution  of  European  orders 
and  decrees.  The  principal  topics  of  conversation  in 
those  days  were,  the  British  orders  in  council,  the 
Berlin  and  Milan  decrees,  embargoes,  and  the  assault 
upon  the  Chesapeake.  They  were,  of  course,  a  death 
blow  to  American  commerce  for  the  time  being,  and 
greatly  injured  the  business  of  the  country.  The 
exports  which,  in  1807,  were  $108,343,150,  in  1808 
fell  down  to  $22,439,960,  and  the  imports  fell  from 
$138,000,000  to  $57,000,000.  Political  parties  were 
greatly  excited,  and  there  were  rumors  of  wars. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  11 

At  the  commencement  of  Jefferson's  administration, 
our  navy  consisted  of  fifteen  frigates  and  twelve 
smaller  vessels,  which  were,  in  a  very  few  years, 
reduced  to  nine  frigates  and  two  smaller  vessels. 
The  commercial  states  were  the  strongest  opposers 
of  Jefferson  ;  and  it  was  natural  for  them  to  infer  that 
the  party  in  power  were  willing  to  cripple  their  in 
terests,  as  a  punishment  for  their  opposition. 

It  must  be  said,  however,  in  vindication  of  Jeffer 
son  for  suffering  the  navy  to  decline,  that,  instead  of 
the  ordinary  vessels  of  war,  he  substituted  a  number 
of  gun-boats  —  a  small  water  craft,  that  carried  a  single 
gun  each.  They  were  found  to  be  unmanageable  in 
a  heavy  sea,  and  were  soon  abandoned.  Mr.  Jeffer 
son  himself  admitted  that  "  this  species  of  naval 
armament  could  be  of  little  use  in  protecting  our 
commerce  upon  the  open  sea,  or  near  the  coast." 
They  were  more  expensive  than  ships.  Each  gun 
in  a  large  frigate  costs  annually  about  $2,200,  while 
each  gun  in  one  of  those  boats  cost  annually  $11,500. 
The  gun-boat  system  became,  at  length,  a  standing 
subject  of  ridicule  among  the  anti-administration  party. 

During  those  embargo  times,  the  people  were  forced 
to  manufacture  for  themselves  articles  for  which  they 
had  depended  on  foreign  countries.  It  was  at  that 
time,  and  from  necessity,  —  which  is  the  mother  of 
invention,  —  that  the  ingenuity  of  the  people  was 
developed  more  fully  than  it  would  have  been  if 
commerce  had  not  been  checked.  The  democratic 
or  republican  party  was  forced,  by  the  relation  in 


12  THE  HALF  CENTUEY. 

which  they  stood  to  the  causes  of  this  commercial 
embarrassment,  to  advocate  and  warmly  encourage 
American  manufactures ;  while  the  Federalists  were 
forced,  by  the  position  they  had  taken  in  reference  to 
those  causes,  to  oppose  manufactures.  They  were, 
however,  obliged  to  engage  in  them ;  and,  finding 
the  business  lucrative,  became  the  advocates  of  home 
productions,  and  of  a  protective  system.  It  is  a  curi 
ous  fact,  that  both  political  parties,  without  any 
change  of  political  principles,  have  changed  sides  in 
regard  to  encouraging  American  manufactures. 

March  4,  1809,  James  Madison  took  the  presiden 
tial  chair,  having  received  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
two  out  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-nine  electoral 
votes.  Soon  after  he  came  into  power,  the  embargo 
was  repealed.  But,  in  May,  1810,  a  non-intercourse 
act  was  passed  by  Congress,  prohibiting  all  commer 
cial  intercourse  with  France  or  Great  Britain  for  one 
year.  It  was  at  the  same  time  promised,  that  if 
either  should  repeal  its  obnoxious  decrees  before  the 
year  should  expire,  the  non-intercourse  act  in  regard 
to  that  nation  should  then  cease. 

June  18,  1812,  war  was  declared  by  Congress 
against  Great  Britain.  The  reasons  assigned  for  it 
were,  the  impressment  of  seamen,  blockades,  and 
orders  in  council,  all  of  them  matters  that  affected 
the  commerce  of  the  6ountry.  It  would  naturally 
be  expected  that  the  commercial  states  would  have 
been  most  in  favor  of  the  war.  Three  fourths  of 
the  commerce  of  the  nation  was  north  of  the  Del- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  13 

aware,  but  only  twenty-two  votes  out  of  sixty-eight 
in  the  commercial  states  were  cast  in  favor  of  war. 
The  vote  in  Congress  stood  as  follows :  — 

Yeas,  House  of  Representatives,  79 ;  Senate,  19 ;  total,  98. 
Nays,      «  «  49;        «        13;      «      62. 

Of  the  seventy-nine  representatives  who  were  for 
war,  seventeen  only  were  north  of  the  Delaware  ; 
and  of  the  nineteen  senators,  only  five.  "  The  war, 
therefore,"  it  was  said,  "  may  have  been  called  a 
measure  of  the  south  and  west  to  take  care  of  the 
interests  of  the  north,  much  against  its  will." 

The  war  commenced  by  an  attack  on  Fort  Macki 
naw,  on  the  island  of  that  name,  which  was  taken 
by  the  British,  July  17.  It  is  a  fact  to  be  remem 
bered,  that  the  first  intelligence  the  commander  of 
the  fort  had  that  war  was  declared,  was  communi 
cated  to  him  by  the  besieging  army.  The  mail 
from  Washington  had  not,  in  thirty  days,  reached 
the  fort. 

The  next  attack  was  made  upon  Detroit,  August 
16,  which  had  been  intrusted  to  General  Hull,  who 
surrendered,  and  the  whole  of  Michigan  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  British.  Hull  was  tried  by  a  court 
martial  for  cowardice,  and  sentenced  to  be  shot,  but 
pardoned  on  account  of  his  great  age  and  former 
services  to  his  country.  The  seat  of  the  war  was 
along  the  Canada  line.  The  Americans  were  victo 
rious  on  the  lakes,  and  captured  or  destroyed  all  the 
British  vessels. 

2 


14  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

September  10,  1813,  Commodore  Perry  captured 
the  British  squadron  in  Lake  Erie.  The  battle  was 
fought  towards  the  western  extremity  of  the  lake, 
not  far  from  the  pathway  of  steamers  passing  from 
Cleaveland  to  Detroit.  Buffalo  was  burned  by  the 
British,  December  30  of  the  same  year.  Only  two 
houses  were  left  standing.  The  bloodiest  battles 
on  land  were  fought,  in  July  and  August,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Niagara  Falls.  The  British  de 
stroyed  twenty-five  vessels  at  Pettipaug,  near  the 
mouth  of  Connecticut  River,  on  the  25th  of  April 
of  that  year  ;  and,  on  the  24th  of  August,  the  city  of 
Washington  was  burned.  The  table  was  set  for 
dinner  at  the  president's  house,  when  the  enemy 
entered  and  set  it  on  fire. 

The  Americans  were  superior  to  the  British  in  sea 
fights,  but  on  land  they  were  inferior.  The  last 
battle  was  fought  at  New  Orleans,  January  8,  1815, 
in  which  the  Americans  were  victorious.  The  treaty 
of  peace  was  concluded  by  the  commissioners  at 
Ghent,  December  24,  1814.  If  the  means  of  com 
munication  had  been  as  rapid  then  as  now,  it  is  pos 
sible  that  that  battle  would  never  have  been  fought. 

The  opposition  to  the  war  in  New  England  was 
very  great,  particularly  on  account  of  its  disastrous 
effects  upon  the  commerce  of  the  country.  Con 
ventions  assembled  and  passed  stringent  resolutions, 
but  the  war  went  on.  Those  whose  memory  does 
not  reach  back  to  those  times  can  have  no  just 
idea  of  the  feelings  of  the  people ;  though  they  will 


v  *  o, 

THE  HALF  CENTURY.  15 

approximate  to  it,  if  they  will  consult  files  of  news 
papers  that  were  published  during  those  years. 

In  the  summer  of  1814,  many  towns  in  Maine 
were  in  the  possession  of  the  British,  who  had  a  fleet 
off  the  coast,  committing  depredations  here  and  there, 
as  an  opportunity  presented  itself.  The  government 
did  not  provide  well  for  the  protection  of  the  coast  of 
New  England,  and  these  states  thought  the  time  had 
come  when  they  must  defend  themselves,  or  be  over 
run  by  a  foreign  foe.  Caleb  Strong,  then  governor 
of  Massachusetts,  called  out  the  militia.  For  the 
expense  of  that  defence  the  state  has  a  claim  upon 
the  national  government.  The  justice  of  the  claim 
has  been  acknowledged,  but  only  a  small  part  of  it 
has  yet  been  paid. 

The  legislatures  of  the  New  England  States  ap 
pointed  delegates  to  meet  in  convention  to  take  into 
consideration  the  state  of  the  country.  The  con 
vention  assembled  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  Decem 
ber  15,  1814,  and  continued  in  session  till  January  5. 
This  was  the  famous  Hartford  Convention.  It  was 
composed  of  twenty-six  members.  A  history  and 
vindication  of  it  have  been  given  to  the  public  by 
Theodore  Dwight,  of  New  York.  The  news  of  peace 
rendered  it  unnecessary  for  the  people  to  take  any 
action  upon  the  deliberations  of  that  body. 

Societies  were  formed  during  the  war,  composed 
of  those  who  opposed  it,  and  called  Washington  Be 
nevolent  Societies.  Their  badge  was  a  miniature  of 
Washington,  and  their  doings  were  secret,  though 


16  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

they  had,  in  connection  with  their  meetings,  a  public 
address. 

These  societies  and  conventions  were  regarded  by 
the  friends  of  the  administration  as  anti-union  and 
disorganizing  in  their  tendency.  At  the  close  of  the 
war,  all  those  political  associations  were  disbanded, 
and  party  feeling  very  rapidly  declined. 

March  4,  1817,  James  Monroe  became  president 
of  the  United  States.  He  was  of  the  Jeffersonian 
school  of  politics,  and  received  one  hundred  and 
eighty-three  out  of  two  hundred  and  seventeen 
electoral  votes.  He  was  elected  for  a  second  term 
without  opposition.  No  other  candidate  was  nomi 
nated.  Party  feeling  had  ceased  to  exist. 

In  1818,  the  Seminole  Indians  of  Florida,  which 
then  belonged  to  Spain,  made  incursions  into  the 
states  bordering  upon  that  province.  General  Jackson 
was  sent  with  an  armed  force  to  protect  the  frontier 
settlements;  and  judging  the  Spanish  government  to 
be  neglectful  of  their  duty,  in  not  restraining  this 
turbulent  tribe,  he  carried  the  war  into  Florida, 
seized  two  Englishmen  he  found  there,  Arbuthnot 
and  Ambrister,  brought  them  before  a  court  martial, 
and  proved  them  guilty  of  exciting  the  Indians  to 
insurrection.  One  of  them  was  sentenced  to  be  shot, 
and  the  other  to  be  hung.  This  affair  produced 
considerable  excitement  for  a  time.  Jackson's  pro 
ceedings  were  condemned  by  many  on  the  ground 
that  he  transcended  his  power  in  leading  his  troops 
into  Florida.  Congress  finally  sanctioned  his  pro 
ceedings,  and  the  excitement  died  away. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  17 

In  1824,  party  spirit  began  again  to  appear.  Four 
candidates  were  put  in  nomination  for  the  presidency 
—  J.  Q,.  Adams,  Andrew  Jackson,  William  H.  Craw 
ford,  and  Henry  Clay.  Political  parties  were  at  this 
time  in  a  sort  of  transition  state.  This  presidential 
campaign  was  spirited  and  earnest.  "  The  various 
candidates  subscribed  substantially  to  the  same  polit 
ical  creed,  and  entertained  similar  views  as  to  the 
principles  on  which  the  general  government  should 
be  administered.  The  struggle  was  for  the  most  part 
personal  and  sectional."  There  was  no  election  by 
the  people.  The  votes  were  ninety-nine  for  Jackson, 
eighty-four  for  Adams,  forty-one  for  Crawford,  and 
thirty-seven  for  Clay.  John  C.  Calhoun  was  elected 
vice-president.  He  received  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
two  of  the  two  hundred  and  twelve  electoral  votes. 
In  February,  J.  Q,.  Adams  was  elected  president,  by 
the  House  of  Representatives,  for  the  ensuing  four 
years,  and  was  inaugurated  March  4,  1825. 

In  August,  1824,  La  Fayette,  by  invitation,  visited 
this  country.  He  was  received  with  great  enthusi 
asm  by  all  classes.  He  was  "  the  nation's  guest," 
and  honored  by  the  people  for  the  important  services 
he  rendered  during  our  revolutionary  struggle.  He 
visited  every  section  of  the  Union,  and  was  every 
where  greeted  with  great  applause.  Congress  made 
him  a  present  of  $200,000,  and  a  township  of  land 
in  Florida.  He  spent  a  year  in  this  country,  and 
returned  to  France  in  1825.  He  died  in  Paris,  May 
20,  1834,  aged  seventy-six, 

9  * 


18  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

June  17,  1825,  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  bat 
tle  of  Bunker  Hill  was  commemorated  by  a  public 
and  impressive  celebration.  The  corner  stone  of 
Bunker  Hill  monument  was  laid  on  that  day,  and  an 
address  was  delivered  by  Hon.  Daniel  Webster,  which 
will  convey  to  other  generations  a  correct  impression 
of  the  spirit  that  animated  the  citizens  of  the  Bay 
State  at  that  time. 

In  August,  1825,  died  Charles  C.  Pinckney,  of 
South  Carolina,  who,  when  minister  to  France,  being 
reminded,  by  some  of  the  agents  of  that  government, 
that  something  would  be  expected  from  the  United 
States  in  the  shape  of  a  loan,  made  the  celebrated 
reply,  "  Millions  for  defence,  not  a  cent  for  tribute." 
He  was  in  his  seventy-third  year. 

In  1828,  J.  Q,.  Adams  and  Andrew  Jackson  were 
candidates  for  the  presidency.  The  electioneering 
campaign  was  warm  and  earnest.  Jackson  was 
elected,  having  received  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  of  the  two  hundred  and  sixty-one  electoral 
votes,  and  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  office 
March  4,  1829. 

The  people  of  the  Southern  States  were  generally 
opposed  to  the  tariff  of  1828.  Their  hostility  was 
manifested  in  an  expressed  determination  not  to  pay 
the  duties  required.  'South  Carolina  was  foremost 
in  this  movement.  Her  leading  politicians  main 
tained  that  the  federal  government  was  a  compact 
between  sovereign  states  for  their  mutual  benefit, 
and  not  a  compact  among  the  people.  They  main- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  19 

tained,  that  if  Congress  enacted  a  law  that  pressed 
heavily  upon  one  state,  and  was  beneficial  to  another, 
the  injured  state  was  not  bound  to  obey  the  law  ; 
she  could  nullify  the  offensive  law,  and  withdraw 
from  the  Union. 

In  November,  1832,  a  convention  of  delegates 
assembled  at  Columbia,  S.  C.,  and  passed  an  ordi 
nance,  declaring  that  the  law  of  the  United  States, 
passed  in  July  of  that  year,  imposing  duties  on  im 
ports,  was  unconstitutional,  and  therefore  null  and 
void.  President  Jackson  issued  a  proclamation, 
giving  his  views  of  the  constitutionality  of  the  law, 
of  his  duty  in  relation  to  it,  and  warning  the  people 
of  that  state  of  the  consequences  that  would  follow, 
if  they  acted  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the 
convention.  The  decision  and  firmness  of  the  presi 
dent  had  a  favorable  effect.  It  led  to  calm  and  sober 
reflection.  North  Carolina  signified  her  purpose  to 
adhere  to  the  Union,  even  if  some  of  the  laws 
enacted  by  Congress  should  for  a  time  press  heavily 
upon  her  interests.  Finally,  one  state  after  another 
that  had  embraced  the  nullification  doctrine  yielded 
the  point,  and  submitted  to  the  will  of  the  majority 
in  Congress. 

The  entrance  of  General  Jackson  upon  the  duties 
of  his  office  was  characterized  by  the  removal  of  all 
persons  from  office  who  differed  from  him  in  their 
political  opinions.  By  his  order,  the  deposits  were 
removed  from  the  United  States  Bank,  and  placed  in 
state  banks,  which,  by  the  opposers  of  the  measure, 


20  THE  HALF  CENTURY, 

were  called  "  pet  banks."  He  was  opposed  to  banks, 
and  in  favor  of  a  specie  currency,  and  recommended 
the  sub-treasury  system. 

March  4,  1837,  Martin  Van  Buren  became  presi 
dent  of  the  United  States  ;  he  received  one  hundred 
and  sixty-seven  of  the  two  hundred  and  ninety-one 
electoral  votes.  The  others  were  cast  for  Webster, 
Harrison,  and  White.  The  general  policy  of  Presi 
dent  Van  Buren  was  like  that  of  his  predecessor. 

During  his  presidency,  the  country  experienced  a 
greater  degree  of  pecuniary  embarrassment  than  it 
had  ever  known.  The  charter  of  the  United  States 
Bank  had  already  expired,  and  its  operations  had 
ceased ;  the  number  of  state  banks  was  considerably 
increased.  The  national  debt  had  been  paid,  or 
reduced  to  a  few  thousands  ;  and  the  surplus  revenue, 
amounting  to  $46,000,000,  had  been  distributed 
among  the  states.  There  were  over-trading  and 
much  ruinous  speculation,  which  prepared  the  way 
for  a  sad  reverse.  In  1837,  the  banks  ceased,  for  a 
time,  to  pay  specie,  and  discounted  very  few  notes. 
Failures  were  numerous,  and  the  business  interests 
of  the  country  were  in  a  sad  condition.  Many  who, 
at  the  commencement  of  this  year,  were  considered 
rich,  at  the  close  of  it  were  poor ;  those  who  had 
opened  the  hand  of  charity  to  the  distressed  were  in 
some  cases  obliged  to  ask  charity  of  others.  It  fur 
nished  an  occasion  for  the  pulpit  to  call  the  attention 
of  men  to  the  vanity  and  folly  of  seeking  to  lay  up 
treasures  on  earth.  In  the  introduction  to  a  sermon 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  21 

preached  in  one  of  our  commercial  cities  in  1837, 
the  speaker  said,  "  The  hum  of  business  is  dying 
away  in  the  great  marts  of  trade.  The  sails  of 
commerce  are  hanging  down  in  a  dead  calm,  or  flap 
ping  in  a  well  nigh  useless  breeze.  The  wheels  of 
the  arts  move  sluggishly.  The  sinews  of  enterprise 
are  cut.  Honorable  men  are  unexpectedly  thrust 
down  from  the  summits  of  commercial  prosperity  and 
opulence,  having  their  sensibilities  rudely  torn  by 
their  being  compelled  to  violate  engagements  that 
were  made  in  good  faith,  and  by  seeing  their  best 
friends  dragged  down  with  them  into  a  state  of  in 
solvency." 

About  this  time  we  had  the  Florida,  or  another 
Seminole  war.  In  1834,  a  treaty  had  been  concluded 
with  that  tribe  of  Indians,  in  which  they  agreed  to  re 
move  west  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1836,  four  hundred 
emigrated,  and  in  1837  and  1838,  fifteen  hundred 
more.  The  remainder,  about  three  thousand  in  num 
ber,  refused  to  go.  They  wandered  about  the  country, 
committing  depredations,  and  hiding  themselves  in 
swamps  and  thickets,  from  which  they  would  sally 
forth  and  commit  new  acts  of  violence,  murdering 
families  and  burning  houses.  They  withstood,  by 
their  peculiar  mode  of  warfare,  the  power  and  skill 
of  an  army  led  on  by  accomplished  generals,  for  some 
years.  The  leading  spirit  among  them1  was  Osceola, 
who  was  captured  in  the  latter  part  of  1837,  and  died 
at  Fort  Moultrie,  of  a  disease  of  the  throat,  January 
31,  1838. 


22  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  1829,  a  third  political  party  —  the  Antimasonic 
—  was  organized.  Its  history  will  be  found  in  a 
subsequent  chapter.  In  1840,  the  Whigs  and  Anti- 
masons  nominated  the  same  man  —  William  H.  Har 
rison —  for  the  presidency.  The  electioneering  cam 
paign  of  that  year  was  distinguished  for  its  mass 
meetings,  long  processions,  and  song-singing.  Harri 
son  was  elected  by  a  large  majority  over  Van  Buren, 
the  opposing  candidate,  and  entered  upon  the  duties 
of  his  office  March  4,  1841,  and  died  one  month  after. 
He  was  the  first  president  of  the  United  States  that 
died  while  in  office.  He  was  succeeded  by  John 
Tyler,  the  vice-president,  whose  administration  was 
opposed  by  both  political  parties. 

In  1837  and  1838,  there  was  an  insurrection  in 
Canada.  The  insurgents  were  in  favor  of  reform  or 
independence.  The  people  in  the  bordering  states 
sympathized  with  them ;  and  many,  it  is  believed, 
joined  their  army,  or  secretly  assisted  them.  In  the 
latter  part  of  1837,  General  Van  Renssalaer,  of  Alba 
ny,  was  at  the  head  of  one  thousand  troops,  on  Navy 
Island,  in  the  Niagara  River.  The  leader  in  this 
movement  was  William  M'Kenzie.  They  held  com 
munication  with  the  American  shore  by  steamboats. 
The  steamer  Caroline,  which  lay  at  Schlosser,  on  the 
American  side,  was  seized  by  the  royalists  at  one 
o'clock,  A.  M.,  December  30  ;  twenty-two  men  were 
killed,  and  the  boat  was  taken  out  into  the  channel 
of  the  river,  set  on  fire,  and  sent  on  her  way  over  the 
falls. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  23 

The  president  of  the  United  States  and  the  gov 
ernor  of  New  York  interposed,  and  obliged  the 
Americans  to  leave  Navy  Island  and  return  home. 
This  affair  came  very  near  involving  our  country  in. 
a  serious  difficulty  with  England. 

In  1841,  a  portion  of  the  people  of  Rhode  Island, 
being  dissatisfied  with  the  constitution  of  that  state, 
particularly  in  regard  to  the  restriction  it  imposed  on 
the  right  of  suffrage,  and  the  inequality  of  representa 
tion,  called,  on  their  own  responsibility,  a  convention 
of  delegates  from  the  several  towns  to  frame  a  new 
constitution.  The  legal  and  proper  course  would 
have  been  for  the  legislature  to  have  passed  an  act 
authorizing  the  governor  to  call  for  the  appointment 
of  delegates.  This  party  were  in  favor  of  universal 
suffrage,  and  were  called  the  "  suffrage"  party ;  while 
those  who  adhered  to  the  old  constitution,  and  were 
opposed  to  any  emendation  except  in  the  way  pre 
scribed  by  the  constitution,  were  called  "  the  law  and 
order  "  party.  The  "  suffrage  "  convention  assem 
bled  in  the  autumn  of  1841,  drafted  a  constitution, 
and  sent  it  to  the  people  for  adoption.  The  leader 
of  this  party  was  Thomas  W.  Dorr,  of  Providence. 
The  votes  from  the  towns  were  returned  and  counted 
in  January,  1842,  when  it  appeared  that  it  had  been 
adopted  by  fourteen  thousand  voters.  The  law  and 
order  party  did  not  vote  at  all.  A  proclamation  was 
issued  declaring  this  instrument  to  be  the  constitution 
of  the  state,  and  April  18  appointed  for  the  election 
of  state  officers,  and  of  a  legislature  to  meet  in  May. 


24  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  governor  also  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring 
the  whole  proceeding  to  be-  unconstitutional  and 
treasonable,  and  warning  the  people  of  the  conse 
quences  that  must  ensue  in  any  attempt  to  sustain, 
those  proceedings. 

Thomas  W.  Dorr  was  elected  governor,  the  legis 
lature  assembled,  arid  the  new  government  was  or 
ganized  in  due  form.  June  17,  the  suffrage  party 
sent  a  body  of  men  to  the  arsenal,  and  demanded  the 
possession  of  it.  Meeting  with  opposition,  they  pro 
cured  two  field  pieces,  and  threatened  to  fire  upon 
the  militia  and  others  assembled  to  protect  the  arsenal. 
No  gun  was  fired.  In  the  morning,  if  appeared  that 
Dorr  had  fled,  when  eleven  officers  of  the  new  gov 
ernment  resigned.  Dorr,  however,  collected  all  the 
force  he  could  muster  at  Chepachet,  with  a  determi 
nation  to  sustain  the  new  government.  He  gathered 
to  his  standard  about  one  thousand  men.  The  old 
governor  called  out  seven  thousand  militia,  three 
thousand  of  whom  marched  to  Chepachet,  June  26. 
Dorr  again  fled,  when  he  found  that  resistance  would 
be  in  vain  ;  and  so  the  war  ended.  One  thousand 
dollars  were  offered  for  his  apprehension.  In  1843, 
weary  of  leading  a  fugitive  life,  he  surrendered  him 
self  to  the  government ;  and,  after  a  long  imprison 
ment,  he  was  tried,  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to 
the  state's  prison.  He  was  committed  in  July,  1844, 
and  released,  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance,  in 
June,  1845. 

In   1844,  James  K.  Polk   and  Henry  Clay  were 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  25 

candidates  for  the  presidency :  the  former  received 
one  hundred  and  seventy  electoral  votes,  and  the 
latter  one  hundred  and  five.  During  his  administra 
tion,  the  boundary  line  between  Oregon  and  the 
British  possessions  was  settled,  Texas  admitted  to 
the  Union,  and  a  war  of  two  years'  continuance  car 
ried  on  with  Mexico,  resulting,  as  has  already  been 
intimated,  in  the  acquisition  of  a  large  addition  to 
our  territory. 

April  25,  1846,  there  was  a  skirmish  between  the 
American  troops  and  the  Mexicans,  on  the  shore  of 
the  Rio  Grande,  in  which  seventeen  Americans  were 
killed ;  a  fourth,  May  9,  in  which  one  hundred  and 
twenty-two  were  killed.  In  June,  Congress  voted 
that  war  did  already  exist ;  it  was  not  formally  pro 
claimed.  The  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Guada- 
loupe  Hidalgo,  February  2,  1848,  but  the  treaty  was 
not  accepted  by  the  two  nations,  and  the  proclamation 
of  it  made,  till  July  4. 

The  principal  battles  were  those  of  Monterey, 
September  12 — 14,  1846;  Buena  Yista,  February 
22  and  23,  1847 ;  Vera  Cruz,  March  9—28,  1847  ; 
Cerro  Gordo,  April  18  and  19;  Churubusco,  August 
19  and  20;  Chupultepec  and  Mexico,  Sept.  12 — 14, 
1847. 

In  the  summer  of  1848,  a  new  political  party  was 
organized ;  the  nucleus  of  it  was  found  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  among  those  opposed  to  paying  annual 
rents  to  the  proprietors  of  large  landed  estates.  They 
claimed  that  land  could  not  be  entailed  to  a  family 
3 


26  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

and  their  descendants  forever ;  that  it  ought  to  be 
sold  to  the  occupants,  and  thus,  in  a  sense,  be  free. 
They  were  called,  by  way  of  reproach,  "  the  barn 
burners,"  and  began  to  exert  some  influence  in  the 
legislature.  The  new  party  gathered  around  this 
nucleus,  and  were  opposed  to  the  extension  of  slavery 
to  the  new  states  arid  territories,  and  assumed  the 
name  of  the  Free  Soil  party.  Consequently,  there 
were  three  candidates  for  the  presidency  in  1848  — 
Z.  Taylor,  L.  Cass,  and  M.  Van  Buren. 

General  Taylor  was  elected,  having  received  one 
hundred  and  sixty-three  of  the  two  hundred  and 
ninety  electoral  votes,  and  was  inaugurated  March  5, 
1849. 

The  Free  Soil  party  held  the  balance  of  power  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  in  1849 — 1850,  and 
for  two  weeks  prevented  the  election  of  a  speaker 
and  the  organization  of  the  House. 

At  the  close,  of  the  half  century,  we  have  fallen 
into  one  of  those  straits  through  which  it  is  difficult 
to  navigate  the  ship  of  state.  The  question  is,  Shall 
the  area  of  freedom  or  of  slavery  be  extended  ?  The 
slaveholding  states  held  on  to  California  with  a  death 
like  grasp,  preferring  she  should  not  come  into  the 
Union,  unless  she  should  come  in  the  promoter  and 
defender  of  the  peculiar  institutions  of  the  south. 

The  following  presidents  and  vice-presidents  of 
the  United  States  have  died  during  the  last  half  cen 
tury  :  — 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  27 
PRESIDENTS. 

John  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,                July  4,  1826,  aged  91. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,                     "  "        "  83. 

James  Madison,     "             "                      June  28,  1836,     "  79. 

James  Monroe,       "            «                     July  4,  1831,     «  73. 

William  H.  Harrison,  of  Ohio,                 April  4,  1841,    "  68. 

Andrew  Jackson,  of  Tennessee,               June  8,  1845,     "  78. 

John  Q.  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,           Feb.  23,  1848,     «  81. 

James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,                  June  17,  1849,     "  54. 

Zachary  Taylor,  of  Mississippi,               July  9,  1850,    "  66. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

George  Clinton,  of  New  York,                 April  20,  1812,  aged  73. 

Elbridge  Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,           Nov.  23,  1814,     "  70. 

Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of  New  York,          June  11 ,  1825,     "  50. 

Aaron  Burr,                "         "                    Sept.  14,  1836,     "  81. 

John  C.Calhoun,  of  South  Carolina,          Mar.  31,  1850,     "  68. 

Of    the    fifty-six  signers  of   the    Declaration  of 
American  Independence,  thirty-nine  died  before  the 

close  of  the  last  century.     The  deaths  of  the  re 
mainder  have  occurred  in  the  following  order  :  — 

Matt  Thornton,  of  New  Hampshire,        June  24,  1803,  aged  88. 

Samuel  Adams,  of  Massachusetts,            Oct  2,  "         "  82. 

Francis  Lewis,  of  New  York,                  Dec.  30,  "        "  89. 

George  Walton,  of  Georgia,                     Feb.  2,  1804,     «  64. 

Robert  Morris,  of  Pennsylvania,               May  8,  1806,     "  72. 

James  Smith,     "             "  "        "  90. 

Thos.  Hay  wood,  of  South  Carolina,          March,  1809,     "  51. 

Samuel  Chase,  of  Maryland,                     June  19,  1811,     "  70. 

William  Williams,  of  Connecticut  Aug.  2,  "  "  80. 

.  George  Clymer,  of  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  23,  1813,  "  73. 

'Benjamin  Rush,"  "  April  19,  «  «  68. 


28  THE   HALF  CENTtJRY. 

Robert  T.  Paine,  of  Massachusetts,  May  11,  1814,  «  83, 

Elbridge  Gerry,  of  Massachusetts,  Nov.  23,  "  "  70. 

Thomas  M'Kean,  of  Delaware,  June  24,  1817,  «  83. 

William  Ellery,  of  Rhode  Island,  Feb.15,  1820,  «  92. 

William  Floyd,  of  New  York,  Aug.  4,  J821,  «  87. 

Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton,  Sept.  14,  1832,  "  96. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States,  fifty  years  ago, 
consisted  of  twenty-eight  senators  and  one  hundred 
and  seven  representatives ;  now  of  sixty  senators  and 
two  hundred  and  thirty  representatives. 

There  have  been,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  twelve 
extra  sessions  of  Congress ;  three  during  the  admin 
istration  of  Jefferson,  five  during  that  of  Madison, 
two  during  that  of  Monroe,  one  during  that  of  Jack 
son,  and  one  during  that  of  Tyler. 

Eighteen  bills  that  passed  both  houses  of  Congress 
have  been  vetoed  by  the  president.  Five  were 
vetoed  by  Madison — the  last,  January  30,  1813,  a 
United  States  Bank  ;  one  by  Monroe  in  1822,  the 
Cumberland  Road  bill  ;  ten  by  Jackson,  the  Mays- 
ville  Road  bill,  the  Washington  Turnpike,  the  Louis 
ville  and  Portland  Canal,  the  Road  from  Detroit  to 
Chicago,  and  the  Lighthouse  bill,  all  in  1830.  In 
1832  he  vetoed  the  United  States  Bank,  the  Harbor 
bill,  and  one  other ;  in  1833,  the  Land  bill ;  in  1836, 
the  bill  changing  the  day  of  the  meeting  of  Congress. 

Tyler  vetoed  two  in  1841,  the  Fiscal  Bank  bill, 
and  a  substitute  for  it. 

The  population  of  the  United  States,  in  1800,  was 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  29 

5,305,925  ;  in  1840  it  was  17,063,353.  It  is  esti 
mated  that  in  1850  it  is  23,500,000,  or  more  than 
quadruple  what  it  was  in  1800. 

The  immigration  to  this  country  has  been  very 
great,  especially  since  1830.  The  number  of  emi 
grants  entered  at  the  various  custom-houses,  between 
1800  and  1830,  was  nearly  400,000  ;  from  1830  to 
1850,  the  number  entered  at  the  custom-houses,  and 
that  have  corne  in  through  the  British  provinces,  will 
exceed  1,500,000. 

The  exports  of  the  United  States  were  least  of  all 
in  1814,  the  last  year  of  the  war  with  England, 
being  only  $6,927,441,  and  greatest  in  1839,  being 
$162,092,132.  The  imports  were  least,  also,  in 
1814,  being  only  $12,965,000.  They  were  greatest 
in  1836,  the  year  preceding  the  great  pecuniary  em 
barrassment,  being  $190,000,000,  and  exceeding  the 
exports  $62,000,000. 

The  national  debt  in  1801  was  $83,000,000;  in 
1816,  at  the  close  of  the  war,  it  was  $127,334,000  ; 
in  1836,  nothing,  and  a  surplus  of  $46,000,000  left 
for  distribution  among  the  states.  In  1848,  it  was 
$46,000,000. 

The  growth  of  cities  has  been  very  rapid.  In 
1800,  Cincinnati  had  only  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
inhabitants;  it  has  now  82,000.  In  1820,  St. 
Louis  had  a  population  of  4,598  ;  now  it  has  70,000. 
In  1840,  Chicago  had  4,853  inhabitants,  and  in  1848, 
it  had  19,725.  Milwaukie  was  laid  out  in  1835,  and 
3* 


30  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

the  first  house  was  built  that  year ;  in  1849,  it  had  a 
population  of  16,000. 

The  old  cities  on  the  Atlantic  shore  have  increased 
rapidly.  New  York  had  in  1800  a  population  of 
60,489,  but  in  1845  it  had  371,102.  Philadelphia 
had  in  1800  a  population  of  70,287,  and  in  1840  it 
had  258,000.  Boston  in  1800  had  24,927,  and  in 
1845  it  had  114,366. 

"  In  Boston,  in  1803,  there  was  not  a  brick  house 
in  the  whole  of  Tremont  Street.  In  Beacon  Street, 
Mr.  Joy's  handsome  house,  (which,  when  it  was 
building,  was  thought  to  be  out  of  town,)  the  Han 
cock  house,  and  two  old  wooden  houses,  belonging 
one  to  Mr.  Gushing,  and  one  to  Judge  Yinal,  com 
prised  all  the  dwellings  in  that  now  splendid  street. 
In  Chestnut  Street  there  were  but  five  houses,  and  in 
Mt.  Vernon  Street  none  below  Willow.  There  were 
but  fourteen  places  of  public  worship.  The  dry 
goods  wholesale  business  was  in  the  hands  of  Messrs. 
Salisbury,  Parker,  Boott,  and  Pratt.  The  retail 
traders  were  nearly  as  few.  There  are  only  two  or 
three  survivors  of  those  last  named.  Mr.  Magner, 
who  owned  the  most  of  Lindall  Street,  was  the  black 
smith  ;  Mr.  Elliot,  the  apothecary ;  Mr.  Andrews 
and  Mr.  West,  the  booksellers ;  the  Messrs.  Brad- 
lees  and  Ticknor,  the  grocers  ;  Mr.  Hunnewell,  the 
mason  and  architect ;  Messrs.  Russell  and  Young, 
the  printers  of  newspapers ;  Mr.  Revere,  the  cop 
persmith.  The  large  shipping  merchants  were  Cod- 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  31 

man,  Elliot,  Coolidge,  Russell,  &c.  A  single  pasture 
in  Pearl  Street,  where  one  cow  grazed,  sold  a  few 
years  ago  for  $75,000.  What  is  quite  remarkable, 
the  rent  of  houses  in  1803  was  as  high  for  the  same 
description  of  houses  as  it  is  now." 


SECTION  2.    Indians.     Particulars  of  the    Georgia 
Controversy. 

IN  1820,  Rev.  J.  Morse,  D.  D.,  was  commissioned 
by  the  secretary  of  war  to  visit  the  various  tribes  of 
Indians  in  the  United  States,  to  inquire  into  their 
condition  and  circumstances,  and  to  make  a  report  of 
all  such  matters  as  might  be  useful  to  those  who  had 
the  management  of  Indian  affairs.  His  report  and 
the  appendix  made  a  volume  of  four  hundred  pages. 
There  were  then  in  New  England  2,247  Indians ;  in 
New  York,  5,184  ;  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  there  were  47,783  ;  arid  in  the  Southern 
States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  there  were  65,122. 
The  greater  part  of  those  on  the  north  and  south  of 
the  Ohio  have  since  removed  to  the  west  of  the 
Mississippi.  The  practice  of  the  United  States  has 
ever  been  to  buy  their  lands,  and  pay  them  for  their 
improvements,  whenever  they  have  been  inclined  to 
sell.  It  has  in  some  instances  happened,  that  their 
land  has  been  wanted  when  they  did  not  wish  to  sell. 

Serious  difficulties  grew  out  of  an  attempt,  on  the 
part  of  Georgia,  about  thirty  years  ago,  to  oblige  the 


32  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

Indians  to  sell  their  lands,  and  remove  farther  west. 
The  report  of  a  congressional  committee,  in  reference 
to  this  matter,  was  drawn  up  by  Hon.  E.  Everett,  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  published  in  1827,  which, 
with  the  accompanying  documents,  formed  a  volume 
of  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pages. 

The  narrative  of  the  facts  of  this  case,  and  of  the 
principles  on  which  action  was  based,  will  give  a  clew 
to  the  reasons  why  our  government  have  conducted 
as  they  have  in  other  cases. 

The  people  of  Georgia  have  been  severely  censured 
for  their  course  in  regard  to  the  Indian  tribes  in  that 
state.  They  were  deserving  of  censure,  and  yet,  if 
other  states  had  been  in  their  place,  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  they  would  have  been  perfectly  quiet. 
When  on  the  side  of  the  oppressor  there  is  power,  he 
is  very  likely  to  use  it  for  the  accomplishment  of  his 
wishes.  If  the  best  land  in  any  of  our  states  was 
occupied  by  a  large  tribe  of  Indians,  it  would  be  very 
natural  for  the  people  to  desire  their  removal,  and  the 
occupancy  of  their  lands.  Though  the  Georgians 
are  not  to  be  justified  in  doing  as  they  did,  yet  they 
are  not  sinners  above  all  men  because  they  did  those 
things. 

England,  by  the  right  of  discovery,  claimed  a  pre 
emptive  right  to  the  lands  of  the  Indians  —  the  exclu 
sive  right  of  purchasing  them.  No  individual  or 
company  could,  by  purchasing  of  the  Indians,  obtain 
a  bonafide  title,  without  the  consent  of  the  English 
government. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  33 

At  the  close  of  the  revolution,  England  ceded  to 
the  United  States  her  claim  to  the  whole  country, 
so  that  the  federal  government  had  the  same  pre 
emptive  right  to  the  Indian  lands  that  England  had. 
At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  American  consti 
tution,  the  question  arose,  whether  this  preemptive 
right  belonged  to  the  federal  government  or  to  the 
states  in  which  the  Indians  resided.  The  controver 
sies  growing  out  of  this  difference  of  opinion  were 
of  a  most  serious  character,  and  retarded  the  adoption 
of  the  constitution  in  some  of  the  states.  It  also 
formed  the  subject  of  some  of  the  most  embarrassing 
questions  that  came  before  the  Continental  Congress. 
These  difficulties  were  of  such  a  magnitude  that  they 
could  not  be  settled  by  any  positive  decision  in  favor 
of  either  party.  They  were  left  to  be  settled  as  best 
they  could  be,  when  a  case  occurred  requiring  action. 
Congress,  however,  has  always  acted  on  the  principle 
that  to  her  belongs  this  preemptive  right.  To  her  it 
ought  to  belong ;  she  can  most  easily  extinguish 
Indian  titles. 

Articles  of  cession  were  concluded  between  the 
United  States  and  Georgia,  April  24,  1802.  Georgia 
ceded  to  the  United  States  all  her  lands  west  of  a 
certain  line,  and  they  assumed  the  obligation  to  ex 
tinguish  the  Indian  titles  to  all  lands  east  of  said  line, 
as  soon  as  it  could  be  done  peaceably  and  on  reason 
able  terms.  In  nineteen  years,  they  bought  of  the 
Indians  within  the  bounds  of  Georgia  more  than 


34  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

14,000,000  of  acres,  which  thus  became  the  property 
of  the  state,  and  the  Indians  removed. 

In  1817,  the  A.  B.  Commissioners  established  a 
mission  among  the  Indians  in  Georgia;  for  the  sup 
port  of  schools,  and  to  enable  them  to  introduce  the 
arts  of  civilized  life,  they  received  from  the  United 
States  treasury,  annually,  a  specific  sum  of  money. 
These  operations  were  very  successful.  Civilization 
advanced  rapidly.  In  1825,  there  were  among  the 
Cherokees  79,842  domestic  animals,  762  looms, 
2,486  spinning-wheels,  172  wagons,  2,942  ploughs, 
10  saw-mills,  31  grist-mills,  62  blacksmiths'  shops,  a 
printing  press,  and  a  newspaper. 

The  Indians  had  made  such  progress  in  civiliza 
tion  that  they  began  to  appreciate  the  value  of  their 
lands  and  their  homes,  and  refused  to  sell  at  a  price 
which  the  United  States  were  willing  to  pay.  Geor 
gia,  in  the  mean  time,  was  urging  the  government  to 
extinguish  the  Indian  title,  and  give  her  the  pos 
session  of  the  country ;  she  complained  that  the 
United  States  had  so  added  to  the  comforts  of  the 
Cherokees,  had  so  .instructed  them  in  the  business  of 
husbandry,  and  had  attached  them  so  firmly  to  their 
homes,  as  to  destroy  almost  the  last  ray  of  hope  that 
they  would  ever  consent  to  part  with  their  lands  on 
any  reasonable  terms. 

In  this  state  of  things,  what  could  be  done  ?  Con 
gress,  in  a  treaty  with  the  Indians,  in  1791,  had  said, 
"  The  United  States  solemnly  guarantee  to  the  Chero 
kee  nation  all  their  lands  not  yet  ceded."  Treaties 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  35 

with  them  had  always  been  regarded  as  sacred  as 
with  other  races  of  men,  and  ought  always  to  be 
as  sacredly  observed.  The  United  States  were  not 
bound,  by  their  treaty  with  Georgia,  to  procure  the 
Indian  lands  unless  they  could  purchase  them  on  rea 
sonable  terms,  and  were  bound  to  protect  them  from 
those  who  would  drive  them  off  by  violence. 

In  1827,  the  legislature  of  Georgia  took  the  ground 
that  England,  by  the  right  of  discovery,  had  more 
than  she  ever  claimed  —  a  complete  sovereignty  over 
all  the  Indian  territories,  and  that  the  Indians  were 
tenants  at  will.  They  also  maintained  that  England 
ceded  not  her  rights  to  the  nation,  but  to  the  indi 
vidual  states,  and  that  the  Indians  in  each  state  were 
tenants  at  the  will  of  the  inhabitants  of  each  state. 
All  this  being  assumed  to  be  true,  it  followed,  that 
the  Georgians  owned  the  Cherokee  lands,  and  the 
Cherokees  must  leave  at  their  bidding.  They  also 
discovered  that  the  treaty  made  with  the  United 
States  in  1802  was  null  and  void,  for  in  that  treaty 
Congress  had  transcended  its  power,  and  had  promised 
to  give  them  what  was  already  their  own.  It  also 
followed  that  all  treaties  made  with  the  Indians  were 
null  and  void,  for  they  were  based  on  the  belief  that 
England  had  only  a  preemptive  right  to  the  soil,  and 
had  ceded  to  this  nation  no  other.  By  a  very  short 
process  of  reasoning,  they  swept  away  all  treaties 
with  the  United  States,  and  those  made  by  them  with 
the  Indians,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
were  the  rightful  lords  and  owners  of  the  whole  ter- 


36  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

ritory  occupied  by  the  aborigines  within  the  bounds 
of  Georgia. 

The  announcement  of  these  doctrines  produced  a 
thrill  of  horror  in  every  unprejudiced  and  high-minded 
man  in  the  nation.  It  was  discussed  in  the  newspa 
pers,  and  reprobated  from  the  pulpit.  In  1829,  a  se 
ries  of  letters  were  published  in  the  National  Intelli 
gencer,  signed  "  William  Penn,"  which  were  under 
stood  to  have  been  written  by  Jeremiah  Evarts,  Esq., 
secretary  of  the  American  Board,  in  which  he  showed 
the  injustice  and  immorality  of  the  course  pursued 
by  the  Georgians. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Georgia  legislature,  1828-9, 
it  was  resolved  to  settle  the  boundary  between  the 
country  of  the  Creeks,  which  had  come  into  the  pos 
session  of  the  state,  and  the  Cherokees.  The  line 
was  run,  and  cut  off  from  the  territory  of  the  Chero 
kees  1, 167,360  acres,  or  about  one  quarter  of  it.  Of 
this  they  took  possession.  It  was  the  opinion  of 
many,  who  understood  the  matter,  that  "  might  con 
stituted  their  only  right." 

At  the  session  of  the  legislature  in  1830-1,  the 
laws  of  Georgia  were  extended  over  the  whole  Cher 
okee  country,  and  all  white  persons  among  them  were 
required  to  leave  the  country  within  a  specified  time, 
or  be  treated  as  criminals,  unless  they  should  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance.  Several  missionaries  were  ar 
rested  ;  some  of  them  took  the  oath,  and  were  set  at 
liberty.  Rev.  Samuel  A.  Worcester  and  Elizur  But 
ler,  M.  D.,  regarding  those  laws  unrighteous  and  in- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  37 

human,  refused  to  take  the  oaths,  and  suffered  them 
selves  to  be  arrested  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the 
question  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States. 

They  were  tried  before  Judge  Clayton,  of  Georgia, 
and  acquitted  on  the  ground  that  they  were  agents  in 
the  employ  of  the  United  States,  and  not  subject  to 
the  laws  of  that  state.  The  judge  was  evidently  in 
clined  to  be  more  merciful  to  the  missionaries  than 
the  law  was.  The  governor  wrote  to  the  president 
of  the  United  States,  and  to  the  secretary  of  war,  to 
know  whether  these  men  were  regarded  by  them  as 
men  in  their  employ.  The  answer  was,  of  course, 
that  they  were  not  so  regarded.  Consequently  they 
were  again  arrested,  and  finally  sentenced  to  four 
years'  imprisonment  in  the  Georgia  Penitentiary. 
They  were  committed  to  prison  in  September,  1831. 
The  governor  evidently  had  some  misgivings ;  he 
must  sustain  the  law,  but  he  was  sorry  it  bore  thus 
heavily  upon  men  who  had  the  confidence  and  sym 
pathy  of  all  good  men.  He  offered  to  pardon  them 
if  they  would  only  take  the  oath  of  allegiance ;  he 
seemed  anxious  to  have  them  do  so.  He  dreaded 
to  meet  the  reproach  that  would  fall  upon  the  state  if 
they  shut  up  with  felons  men  of  unimpeached  and 
unimpeachable  moral  and  religious  character. 

In  February,   1832,  the  case  came  before  the  Su 
preme  Court  of  the  United  States  by  a  writ  of  error, 
and  was  argued  by  Sargeant  and  Wirt.    The  decision 
of  the  court  was  given  March  3d,  by  Chief  Justice 
4 


38  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Marshall.  The  court  stated  at  length  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  right  of  discovery,  the  original  ground 
on  which  the  different  European  powers  laid'  claim 
to  portions  of  the  American  continent,  the  manner  in 
which  lands  had  been  obtained  of  the  Indians,  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  constitution  of  the  United  States 
and  the  acts  of  Congress  in  relation  to  Indian  affairs 
had  been  understood,  and  declared  the  act  of  Georgia, 
in  extending  her  laws  over  the  country  of  the  Cher- 
okees,  unconstitutional.  The  court  issued  an  order 
for  the  release  of  the  missionaries. 

This  decision  and  the  order  were  laid  before  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Georgia,  and  a  motion  made  that 
the  court  should  reverse  its  decision.  It  refused  to  do 
so,  and  the  missionaries  continued  in  prison  till  1833, 
when  it  was  understood  that  the  governor  would  par 
don  them  if  they  would  make  application  to  him  to 
do  so.  They  made  application,  and  were  set  at  lib 
erty  January  14th. 

It  will  be  asked,  What  was  the  government  of  the 
United  States  doing  in  the  mean  time  ?  Without  en 
tering  into  particulars,  I  will  only  say,  in  the  language 
of  another,  "The  national  government  seem  to  say, 
by  the  manner  in  which  they  treat  the  subject,  We 
cannot  extinguish  the  title  on  any  reasonable  terms, 
because  the  Indians  have  become  too  much  attached 
to  their  country  to  abandon  it.  But  to  the  Georgians 
they  seem  to  say,  If  you  will  extend  your  laws  over 
their  country,  which  recognize  no  Indian  title,  nor 
any  personal  rights,  we  will  stand  still,  and  neglect  to 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  39 

extend  the  protection  we  have  promised.  In  this  way 
they  may  become  so  worried  and  dispirited  that  they 
will  be  willing  to  accede  to  terms  which  we  regard 
as  reasonable." 

And  so  it  was.  In  May,  1835,  they  were  ready  to 
accede  to  the  terms  that  had  been  proposed.  The 
United  States  gave  them  a  large  tract  of  land  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  and  $500,000  in  money,  besides 
another  considerable  sum  for  damages.  They  agreed 
to  leave  Georgia  within  two  years.  At  the  expiration 
of  that  time,  between  3.000  and  4,000  Choctaws  still 
lingered,  whereupon  General  Scott  was  sent  to  Geor 
gia  with  an  armed  force,  to  compel  them  to  remove. 
They  finally  removed  to  the  western  pait  of  Arkan 
sas,  where  they  still  reside.  No  other  violence  was 
offered  by  the  army  than  to  seize  families  and  retain 
them  as  prisoners.  No  Indian  ever  complained  of  any 
abuse  from  that  source.  Less  injury  \vas  done  by 
mistakes  and  accidents  than  might  have  been  ex 
pected. 

They  removed  in  the  summer  of  1838 ;  they  went 
not  only  from  Georgia,  but  from  the  neighboring 
states.  In  all  there  were  16,000,  of  which  number 
4,000  died  in  ten  months,  in  consequence  of  the  ex 
posure  arid  fatigues  of  the  journey. 

The  prospects  of  the  Indian  tribes  in  this  country 
are  exceedingly  dark.  If  the  states  in  which  they  re 
side  wish  to  get  rid  of  them,  there  is  reason  to  expect 
that  the  government,  instead  of  defending  the  Indians 
against  usurpation,  will  connive  at  such  measures  as 


40  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

the  states  in  which  they  are  may  adopt,  and  thus 
compel  them  to  sell  their  lands  on  "  reasonable  terms." 

Hon.  H.  Clay,  in  a  speech  before  the  senate  of  the 
United  States,  February  4.  1S35,  speaks  of  the  pro 
ceedings  of  the  people  of  Georgia  in  the  following 
manner :  "  The  senate  will  perceive  that  the  whole 
power  of  the  state  of  Georgia,  military  as  well  as 
civil,  has  been  made  to  bear  upon  these  Indians,  with 
out  their  having  any  voice  in  forming,  judging  upon, 
or  executing  the  laws  under  which  they  are  placed, 
and  without  even  the  poor  privilege  of  establishing 
the  injury  they  may  have  suffered  by  the  presentation 
of  any  evidence.  There  then  the  Indian  lies,  with 
his  property,  his  rights,  and  every  privilege  which 
makes  human  existence  desirable,  at  the  mere  mercy 
of  the  state  of  Georgia  ;  a  state  in  whose  government 
or  laws  he  has  no  voice.  Sir,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
most  active  imagination  to  conceive  of  a  condition  of 
human  society  more  perfectly  wretched." 

Such  were  the  views  of  a  great  multitude  in  this 
nation  ;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the  indomitable  pur 
pose  of  Georgia  to  get  possession  of  the  Indian  lands, 
the  government  would  have  adhered  to  their  solemn 
treaties  with  those  tribes,  and  the  nation  would  have 
had  less  reason  to  fear  the  wrath  of  an  offended 
God. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  41 


SECTION  3.     Political  Changes  in  South  America. 

THIS  portion  of  the  western  continent  has  been  in 
an  unsettled  and  insurrectionary  state  during  most  of 
the  last  half  century.  I  propose  to  give  only  a  brief 
outline  of  the  events  that  have  there  taken  place. 
The  spirit  of  liberty  seems  first  to  have  manifested 
itself  in  the  northern  provinces,  probably  from  their 
proximity  to  the  United  States,  and  in  a  few  years  to 
have  pervaded  the  whole  country. 

New  Grenada.  —  In  1800,  it  was  a  vice-royalty  of 
Spain,  but  in  1811  declared  itself  independent.  In 
1819,  it  united  with  Venezuela  and  the  presidency  of 
Quito,  and  was  called  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  of 
which  Simon  Bolivar,  who  was  regarded  by  his  friends 
as  the  Washington  of  South  America,  was  the  first 
president.  In  1828,  he  assumed  supreme  power,  and 
Venezuela  withdrew  from  the  Union.  In  1831,  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  was  resolved  into  its  original 
elements.  General  Santander  was  chosen  president : 
it  still  retains  its  republican  form  of  government, 
though  its  affairs  are  in  an  unsettled  state.  It  covers 
an  area  of  380,000  square  miles,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  a  population  of  1.680,000.  Joaquin  Mosquaru 
was  inaugurated  president  in  1844. 

Bolivar's  fame  and  labors  were  not  confined  to  New 

Grenada.     We  shall  see  that  he   aided  Peru   in   her 

revolutionary  struggle,   and  was  called  the  Liberator. 

11  He  was  a  man,"  says  one,  "  of  much  hard  fighting, 

4* 


42  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

hard  riding,  of  manifold  achievements,  distresses,  and 
heroisms ;  a  many-counselled  and  much-enduring 
man."  He  died  December  17,  1830,  aged  47. 

Venezuela.  —  This  includes  the  old  Spanish  royalty 
of  Caraccas  and  Spanish  Guiana.  It  withdrew  from 
the  republic  of  Colombia  when  Bolivar  assumed  su 
preme  power,  arid  united  with  it  again  for  a  short  time 
after  his  decease.  In  1831,  it  declared  itself  an  inde 
pendent  republic,  of  which  General  Paez  was  president. 
In  1847,  J.  T.  Monagas  became  president,  and  soon 
after  a  civil  war  commenced  ;  the  parties  were  headed 
by  the  president  and  ex-president.  The  latter  was 
defeated  in  a  decisive  battle,  fought  August  15,  1849. 
The  affairs  of  the  country  were  in  a  sad  condition, 
and  the  best  citizens  were  seeking  a  residence  else 
where.  Paez  is  the  most  distinguished  man  in  the 
country,  and  has  a  strong  hold  upon  the  affections  of 
the  people.  Venezuela  has  an  area  of  450,000  square 
miles,  and  one  million  of  inhabitants. 

Ecuador,  or  Equador,  is  the  old  Spanish  presidency 
of  Quito,  and  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  equator  ;  hence 
its  name.  It  became  an  independent  republic  in  1831  ; 
it  has  an  area  of  325,000  square  miles,  and  a  popula 
tion  of  600,000. 

Peru.  —  This  province  declared  itself  independent 
of  Spain  July  15,  1821.  General  San  Martin  was  de 
clared  its  protector  in  August.  The  Spanish  or  roy 
alist  party  was  still  powerful.  In  1823,  Lamar  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and  La  Serna, 
the  Spanish  general,  collected  his  forces  in  Upper 


THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

Peru,  now  called  Bolivia.  The  republicans  applied 
to  Colombia  for  aid,  and  Generals  Sucre  and  Bolivar 
were  sent  to  fight  the  battles  of  freedom  in  that  coun 
try.  The  decisive  battle  between  the  royalists  and  re 
publicans  was  fought  at  Ayacucho,  December  9,  1824, 
in  which  the  latter  were  victorious.  The  royalists 
maintained  themselves  for  a  time  in  Upper  Peru,  but 
were  totally  routed  in  1825.  Bolivar,  in  the  early 
part  of  1824,  was  invested  with  supreme  power  in 
Peru,  with  the  title  of  Liberator.  But  the  Peruvians, 
becoming  suspicious  of  his  designs,  removed  him  from 
office  and  restored  Lamar,  who  was  succeeded  by  Ga- 
marra  in  1829.  He  was  succeeded,  December  20, 
1833,  by  Obregoso.  In  1837,  the  country  was  placed 
under  the  protection  of  Santa  Cruz,  president  of  Bo 
livia.  In  1839,  Peru  was  again  independent,  and  Ga- 
marra  president.  Raman  Castilia  was  president  in  1849. 
It  has  an  area  of  524,000  square  miles,  and  a  popula 
tion  of  1,373.000. 

Bolivia.  —  This  was  formerly  Upper  Peru.  Soon 
after  the  battle  of  Ayacucho,  this  country  declared  itself 
independent,  and  General  Sucre  was  vested  with  the 
government,  until  a  constitution  could  be  framed  and 
adopted.  The  country  was  called  Bolivia,  in  honor 
of  Bolivar,  who  drew  up  the  constitution  in  1826. 
Sucre  was  chosen  president  for  life.  He  resigned  in 
1828,  and  returned  to  Colombia,  where  he  was  assassi 
nated  in  1830.  General  Blanco  was  elected  president 
in  1828,  and  deposed  January  1,  1829,  and  was  suc 
ceeded  by  General  Santa  Cruz.  In  1849  General  Belxu 


44  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

was  chosen  president.  This  country  has  an  area  of 
318,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  1,700,000. 

Chili.  —  The  revolutionary  spirit  began  to  manifest 
itself  in  this  province  as  early  as  1809,  while  Spain 
was  harassed  and  torn  by  the  invasion  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  It  did  not,  however,  throw  off  the  Span 
ish  yoke  till  1818.  By  the  intrigues  of  San  Martin, 
the  three  Carreras,  and  Rodriguez,  the  best  men  in 
the  country  were  murdered,  and  O'Higgins  was 
elected  chief  magistrate,  with  the  title  of  Supreme 
Director. 

San  Martin  is  famous  for  having  led  an  army  over 
the  Andes,  from  Mendoza  into  Chili,  in  1817.  He  is 
the  Hannibal  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  O'Higgins 
was  San  Martin's  favorite,  but  the  people  of  Chili 
could  not  long  endure  his  directorship:  in  1823,  he 
was  compelled  to  resign,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ra 
mon  Freire  ;  in  1826,  he  was  succeeded  by  Manuel 
Blanco.  In  18.27,  the  form  of  the  government  was 
changed  ;  and  the  chief  ruler  has  since  been  called 
President.  The  people  have  been  divided  on  the 
question,  whether  they  should  establish  one  central 
government  for  the  whole,  or  whether,  like  the  United 
States,  they  should  have  a  federal  government.  %  Man 
uel  Bulnes  was  appointed  president  in  1841.  It  is 
one  of  the  smallest  of  the  South  American  states, 
having  an  area  of  only  144,000  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  1,200,000. 

Argentine  Republic,  or  Bnenos  Ay  res.  —  This 
province  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  set  up  for 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  45 

independence,  in  1816.  It  assumed  the  name  of  the 
United  Provinces  of  South  America,  and  in  1819 
adopted  a  constitution,  taking  that  of  the  United 
States  for  its  model.  In  1826,  it  took  the  name  of 
the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1828,  the  president  Ri- 
vadavia  resigned,  the  congress  was  dissolved,  and  the 
confederation  came  to  an  end.  In  1830,  Rosas 
became  president  of  the  republic,  and  has  held 
that  office  ever  since,  ruling  the  country  with  little 
less  than  absolute  power.  He  began  to  play  the  ty 
rant  about  1834.  "  Literary,  scientific,  and  humane 
institutions,  which  had  been  established  and  liberally 
maintained  previous  to  the  administration  of  Rosas, 
have  long  since  ceased  to  receive  any  support  from 
government."  There  were  many  frightful  massacres 
in  October,  1840,  and  in  April,  1842 ;  the  heads  of 
well-known  citizens  were  carried  through  the  streets 
of  the  capital  in  carts,  followed  by  those  who  cried, 
"Who  will  buy  peaches  ?  "  "  Who  will  buy  oranges  ?  " 
A  traveller  saw  among  the  curiosities,  in  the  house  of 
Rosas,  the  salted  ears  of  Colonel  Borda,  preserved  in  a 
glass  case.  Between  1834  and  1843,  no  less  than' 
3765  citizens  had  their  throats  cut,  and  1393  were 
shot.  This  is  only  a  specimen  of  the  enormities 
of  which  Rosas  has  made  Buenos  Ay  res  the  blood 
stained  theatre.  Many  have  been  banished,  and  a 
greater  number  have  fled  to  other  provinces.  As  evi 
dence  of  the  diminution  of  the  wealth  of  the  coun 
try,  it  is  said  that  the  importation  of  silks  and  woollen 
goods  has  diminished  very  much,  and  that  of  coarse 


46  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

cottons  has  increased.  This  country  has  an  area  of 
726,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  only  675,000. 

Uruguay  is  called  also  the  Oriental  Republic,  and 
often  Montevideo,  from  its  capital.  This  was  at  first 
a  province  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  In  1826,  there 
was  an  obstinate  war  between  the  republic  and  Brazil 
for  the  possession  of  Uruguay.  The  contest  was 
ended  in  1828,  by  the  mediation  of  England  and 
France,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  acknowl 
edging  this  province  to  be  an  independent  govern 
ment.  Although  the  Argentine  Republic  formally 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  Uruguay,  she  has 
always  determined  that  it  shall  form  a  part  of  that 
republic.  The  aim  of  Rosas  is  to  obtain  possession 
of  the  country,  and  subject  it  to  his  own  government. 
The  signification  of  his  acts  is,  long  life  to  those  who 
are  in  favor  of  uniting  in  one  government  the  prov 
inces  that  formerly  composed  the  republic,  and  death 
to  those  who  are  in  favor  of  the  independence  of 
Uruguay.  The  president  of  this  republic  is  Joaquin 
Stiarez,  who  was  elected  in  1843.  Its  area  is  120,000 
square  miles,  and  its  population  140,000. 

Paraguay.  —  This  became  a  republic  in  1813, 
though  no  formal  declaration  was  made  of  it.  The 
great  man  of  that  country  was  Dr.  Francia.  He  was 
secretary  in  1813,  and  a  consul  in  1814.  In  the  lat 
ter  part  of  that  year,  he  called  a  congress  of  1000 
persons,  who  were  appointed  by  himself —  ignorant 
men,  whom  he  could  control.  By  that  congress  he 
was  appointed  dictator  for  three  years,  and  from  that 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  47 

time  did  not  deem  £  reelection  necessary.  He  en 
couraged  the  lower  classes  to  look  to  him  for  fa 
vor,  and  by  every  means  in  his  power  sowed  discord 
and  jealousies  among  the  better  portion  of  the  people. 
He  was,  if  possible,  more  cruel  and  tyrannical  than 
Nero  or  Dionysius.  In  1830,  it  was  said,  "  The  prisons 
are  groaning  with  their  inmates ;  commerce  is  par 
alyzed  ;  vessels  are  rotting  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers ; 
distrust  and  fear  pervade  every  habitation ;  the  near 
est  relations  and  dearest  friends  are  afraid  of  each 
other  j  despondency  and  despair  are  written  on  every 
countenance."  Dr.  Francia  lived,  through  fear  of 
assassination,  secluded  from  all  society  except  that  of 
an  old  negro  woman  ;  he  examined  carefully  his  sim 
ple  food  to  see  if  it  had  not  been  poisoned,  and  for 
the  same  reason  made  his  own  cigars.  He  died  Sep 
tember,  1840,  being  more  than  fourscore  years  old. 
His  death-scene  is  thus  described  :  "  Attended  during 
his  last  sickness  by  an  old  woman  and  a  native  doc 
tor,  he  was  at  length  told  he  could  not  recover,  and 
that  he  had  better  call  some  one  to  administer  to  the 
wants  of  his  soul.  At  the  mention  of  a  priest,  whom 
he  hated  above  all  things,  he  leaped  from  his  bed  in 
a  paroxysm  of  rage,  and  seizing  a  sabre,  pursued  the 
panic-stricken  doctor  to  the  door,  where  he  fell  down 
and  expired." 

Such,  however,  is  said  to  be  the  mildness  of  the 
people,  that  in  no  state  paper  or  public  document  can 
a  word  be  found  reflecting  with  harshness  upon  his 
awful  administration. 


48  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  1841,  a  consular  government  was  established, 
and  Senores  Lopez  and  Alonzo  were  made  consuls. 
Lopez  now  administers  the  government  alone,  and 
has  the  title  of  President. 

General  Rosas  is  desirous  of  annexing  Paraguay  to 
the  Argentine  Republic,  while  the  English  and  French 
favor  its  independence  for  the  sake  of  free  trade  with 
that  fertile  country.  Its  area  is  74,000  square  miles, 
and  its  population  250,000. 

Brazil.  —  This  country  was  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Portugal  till  1822.  John  VI.,  king  of  Portugal, 
resided  at  Rio  Janeiro  from  1808  to  1821.  During  all 
this  period  there  was  growing  up  a  republican  party, 
composed  mostly  of  foreigners.  When  John  returned 
to  Portugal,  he  made  his  son,  Don  Pedro,  prince  regent. 
In  October,  1822,  Brazil  declared  herself  independent 
of  Portugal,  and  Don  Pedro  was  crowned  emperor. 
In  1831,  he  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Don  Pedro  II.,  who  is  still  emperor  of  Brazil.  There 
is  in  parts  of  Brazil  a  strong  republican  feeling,  which 
keeps  the  country  restless  and  unsettled.  This  is  the 
largest  of  the  South  American  provinces,  extending 
over  2,300,000  square  miles,  having  a  population, 
however,  of  only  5,200,000. 

Republicanism  has  not  been  very  prosperous  in 
South  America,  owing  chiefly,  no  doubt,  to  the  prev 
alence  of  the  Romish  religion,  and  the  domineering 
influence  of  a  Jesuitical  priesthood.  So  long  as  their 
religious  teachers  remain  the  same,  the  masses  of  the 
people  will  remain  uneducated ;  and  though  they 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  49 

may  declare  themselves  a  free  and  independent  peo 
ple,  they  will  not  enjoy  the  blessings  of  true  liberty. 
When   the   South  American  states  shall  have  free 
schools  and  a  free  Bible,  the  tree  of  liberty  will  strike 
its  roots  deeper,  spread  its  branches  over  the  whole 
land,  and  bear  an  abundance  of  good  fruit. 
5 


50  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER  II. 

* 

EDUCATIONAL  CHANGES. 

SECTION  1.     Common  Schools. 

AT  the  formation  of  the  federal  compact,  the  senti 
ment  was  all-pervading,  that  the  perpetuity  of  a  free 
government  must  depend  upon  the  virtue  and  intelli 
gence  of  the  people.  It  was  admitted  by  all  that  the 
success  of  our  young  republic  would  not  answer  the 
expectations  of  its  friends,  unless  the  children  and 
youth  should  all  be  instructed  in  the  rudiments  of 
learning,  and  be  taught  the  fear  of  the  Lord. 

As  Massachusetts  earliest  embarked  in  the  cause 
of  education,  and  as  her  movements  have  had  an 
influence  upon  other  states,  it  will  be  in  order  to 
give  a  sketch  of  what  she  has  done  to  promote  this 
cause. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  her 
school  system  was  substantially  what  it  had  been 
from  the  beginning.  The  towns  were  empowered 
and  required  to  raise  money,  by  a  tax  on  all  the  prop 
erty,  for  the  support  of  schools,  which  were  open 
and  as  free  to  the  children  of  the  poor  as  of  the  rich. 
They  were  divided  into  districts,  and  committees 
were  annually  chosen  to  examine  teachers,  and 
visit  the  schools.  The  great  defect  in  the  system 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  51 

then  was,  that  the  state  required  no  returns  to  be 
made  tp^any  state  officers  respecting  the  condition  of 
the  schools.  If  the  perpetuity*  of  the  government 
depended  on  the  education  of  the  youth,  it  ought  to 
have  been  known  by  the  legislature  whether  the 
towns  were  taking  care  that  no  one  should  grow  up 
unable  to  read  the  laws  of  the  commonwealth  and 
the  sacred  Scriptures.  The  temptation,  in  every 
town,  was  strong  to  raise  as  little  money  as  possible, 
so  that  their  taxes  might  be  light.  Districts  were 
tempted  to  employ  cheap  teachers,  so  that  their 
schools  might  be  long ;  and  teachers  were  tempted 
to  offer  their  services,  without  any  special  qualifica 
tion  for  their  work,  because  their  wages  did  not 
warrant  any  outlay  of  money  for  an  outfit.  The 
consequence  was,  that  schools  languished  ;  there  was 
no  healthful  stimulus  that  urged  the  schools  forward 
in  the  march  of  improvement.  Some  children  grew 
up  without  acquiring  sufficient  education  to  transact 
the  business  of  life. 

Between  1820  and  1825,  considerable  interest  be 
gan  to  be  manifested  on  this  subject.  In  1824, 
James  G.  Carter,  Esq.  published  a  series  of  Letters, 
addressed  to  the  Hon.  Mr.  Prescott,  on  the  Free 
Schools  of  New  England.  In  1826,  Governor  Lin 
coln,  in  his  annual  message  to  the  legislature,  recom 
mended  the  establishment  of  Teachers'  Seminaries. 
During  that  year,  the  school  laws  were  revised,  and  a 
law  enacted  requiring  the  school  committees  of  every 
town  to  make  a  return  to  the  secretary  of  state,  an- 


52  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

nually,  of  the  number  of  districts  in  each  town,  of  the 
number  of  scholars,  of  the  sum  of  money  raised  by 
the  town,  and  of  the  wages  of  the  teachers.  Re 
turns  were  received,  at  the  close  of  that  year,  from 
two  hundred  and  fourteen  towns. 

As  early  as  1812,  President  Dwight  remarked,  that 
the  only  thing  wanting  to  make  the  school  system 
of  New  England  perfect,  was  a  provision  for  collect 
ing  statistical  information  respecting  the  schools,  and 
for  presenting  the  facts  in  a  report  to  the  legislature. 
Such  a  report,  he  said,  would  enable  the  legislature 
to  see  what  defects  needed  to  be  remedied,  and  to 
provide  more  efficiently  for  their  welfare. 

In  1826,  a  monthly  Journal  was  commenced  in 
Boston,  exclusively  devoted  to  the  subject  of  educa 
tion.  It  was  the  first  of  the  kind  that  was  published 
in  the  country,  and  was  called  the  Journal  of  Edu 
cation,  afterwards  the  Annals,  and,  after  1828,  was 
edited  by  William  C.  Woodbridge,  the  geographer. 
It  was  continued  till  1838,  when  it  was  succeeded 
by  the  Common  School  Journal.  In  1830,  a  news 
paper  was  commenced  in  Boston,  called  the  Edu 
cation  Reporter  ;  it  continued  but  a  year.  About 
this  time,  Mr.  Josiah  Holbrook  prepared  some  arti 
cles  of  apparatus  for  common  schools,  lectured  in 
different  parts  of  the  state,  and  held  the  first  edu 
cational  convention  that  ever  assembled  in  this  coun 
try.  It  was  manifest  that  a  new  era  was  about  to 
commence. 

In  August,  1829,  the  American   Institute  of  In- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  53 

struction  held  its  first  annual  meeting ;  it  continued 
its  sessions  four  days,  which  were  occupied  with 
lectures  and  discussions  upon  educational  topics. 
The  Institute  has  continued  to  hold  its  meetings 
every  year  to  the  present  time,  and  has  published 
several  volumes  of  Lectures.  It  has  done  good  ser 
vice  by  calling  the  attention  of  the  public  to  the 
subject  of  popular  education,  and  has  greatly  bene 
fited  teachers  by  giving  them  lessons  of  wisdom  and 
experience. 

In  1835,  a  foundation  was  laid  for  a  school  fund 
in  this  state  from  unappropriated  moneys  received 
for  state  lands  in  Maine,  and  from  money  due 
from  the  United  States  for  military  service  rendered 
during  the  war  of  1812.  It  was  to  be  increased 
from  year  to  year,  till  it  should  amount  to  a  million 
of  dollars.  In  1840,  it  was  $437,592,  and  is  now 
$876,082.  It  increases  annually  about  $30,000. 

In  1837,  the  legislature  constituted  a  Board  of 
Education,  consisting,  besides  the  governor  and  lieu 
tenant-governor,  who  were  members  ex  officio,  of  eight 
persons,  one  of  whom  retires  each  year,  and  another 
is  appointed  in  his  place  by  the  governor  and  council. 
The  Board  was  organized  in  May  of  that  year,  with 
power  to  appoint  a  secretary,  who  devotes  his  whole 
time  to  collecting  and  diffusing  information,  to  visit 
ing  schools,  and  to  doing  whatever  is  needful  to 
promote  the  common  school  interest. 

Hon.  Horace  Mann  was  elected  secretary  in  May, 
1837,  and  was  continued  in  that  office  by  appointment 


54  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

from  year  to  year,  till  Nov.  1848,  when  he  resigned, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Barnas  Sears,  D.  D. 

By  this  arrangement,  a  new  impulse  was  given  to 
the  cause.  The  state  was  soon  explored,  the  con 
dition  of  the  schools  better  known,  and  means  used 
for  the  removal  of  existing  evils ;  one  of  which  was 
the  want  of  well-qualified  teachers. 

At  the  beginning  of  1838,  the  Hon.  Edmund 
Dwight,  of  Boston,  who  died  in  1849,  offered,  through 
the  secretary,  $10,000  for  establishing  one  or  more 
normal  schools,  or  teachers'  seminaries,  on  condition 
that  the  state  would  give  $10,000  more  for  the  same 
purpose,  to  be  expended  under  the  direction  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  by  way  of  experiment.  The 
offer  was  accepted,  and  the  board  proceeded  to  make 
arrangements  for  opening  three  schools. 

In  July,  1839,  the  first  normal  school  ever  estab 
lished  in  the  United  States  went  into  operation  at 
Lexington,  where  the  first  blood  was  shed  in  the 
American  revolution.  Its  teacher  was  Mr.  Cyrus 
Pierce  ;  afterwards  it  was  under  the  charge  of  Rev. 
Mr.  May.  In  1844,  it  was  removed  to  West  Newton, 
and  Mr.  Pierce  became  again  its  teacher.  In  1849, 
his  health  failed,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  E.  S. 
Stearns.  The  second  normal  school  was  opened  in 
Barre,  in  September,  1839,  under  the  instruction  of 
Professor  Samuel  P.  Newman,  who  died  in  1842. 
In  1844,  this  school  was  removed  to  Westfield,  and 
was  under  the  care  of  Rev.  E.  Davis  two  years, 
when  Mr.  D.  S.  Rowe  was  appointed  principal.  The 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  55 

third  was  opened  at  Bridgewater,  in  1840,  under  the 
care  of  N.  Tillinghast,  Esq. 

When  the  $20,000  were  expended,  the  legislature 
were  so  well  satisfied  with  the  experiment,  that  an 
appropriation  was  made  of  $6,000  a  year  for  three 
years.  At  the  same  time,  the  sum  of  $5,000  was 
granted,  to  be  added  to  $5,000  raised  by  subscription, 
to  be  expended  in  building  suitable  houses  at  West- 
field  and  Bridgewater.  The  West  Newton  school 
had  previously  been  furnished  with  a  suitable  build 
ing.  From  that  time,  the  normal  schools  began  to 
be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  settled  policy  of  the 
state. 

This  point  of  success  was  not  reached  without  a 
hard  struggle.  There  were  fears  entertained  by 
many,  that  some  great  evil  would  grow  out  of  these 
movements.  The  secretary  was  called  to  defend 
the  cause  against  the  attacks  of  the  Boston  schoolmas 
ters,  a  clergyman,  and  a  few  politicians. 

In  1837,  previous  to  the  organization  of  the  Board 
of  Education,  a  law  was  passed,  authorizing  the  dis 
tricts  to  raise  a  limited  sum  of  money  for  the  purchase 
of  a  district  school  library.  Subsequently  a  law  was 
passed;  allowing  any  district  that  would  raise  fifteen 
dollars  to  draw  an  equal  sum  from  the  state  treasury, 
to  be  expended  in  the  purchase  of  books  for  a  library. 
In  consequence  of  these  laws,  the  board  felt  them 
selves  called  upon  to  cause  a  series  of  books  to  be 
published  for  that  purpose.  Experience  has  shown 
that  it  would  have  been  as  well  to  have  allowed  the 


56  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

districts  to  have  made  their  own  selection.  It  cer 
tainly  would  have  been  much  more  agreeable  to 
booksellers,  and  saved  some  controversy,  and  a  large 
expenditure  of  bitter  feeling. 

Teachers'  Institutes  began  to  be  holden  in  Massa 
chusetts,  in  1846,  under  the  direction  of  the  secre 
tary  of  the  board.  The  expense  of  each  Institute 
is  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  which  is  paid 
by  the  sfate. 

The  penalty  to  towns  for  not  making  their  returns 
according  to  law,  and  for  not  raising  an  amount  for 
schools  equal  to  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  for  each 
child  between  five  and  fifteen  years  old,  is  a  loss  of 
their  portion  of  the  fund  for  that  year. 

In  1850,  the  state  appropriated  $2,000  to  employ 
two  or  more  assistants  to  aid  the  secretary  in  visiting 
the  schools  of  the  commonwealth.  They  also  passed 
a  law,  authorizing  each  school  district  to  procure 
either  Webster's  or  Worcester's  large  Dictionary  for 
the  use  of  the  schools,  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 

CONNECTICUT  has  the  most  ample  school  fund  of 
any  state  in  the  Union,  according  to  the  number  of 
children.  It  was  created  in  1795,  by  setting  apart 
for  that  purpose  the  income  of  the  sale  of  lands  in 
Ohio  which  were  the  property  of  the  state.  The 
fund-has  been  increasing  from  year  to  year,  and  is 
now  $2,075,000.  Half  of  the  state's  portion  of  the 
surplus  revenue  was  appropriated  to  schools.  The 
people  are  not  obliged  to  raise  any  specific  sum  for 
schools  by  tax,  and  in  very  many  towns  no  more  is 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  57 

expended  than  is  obtained  from  the  public  fund. 
The  old  adage,  that  "  what  costs  nothing  is  worth 
nothing,"  is  proved  to  be  true  by  the  lack  of  interest 
among  the  people  of  that  state  in  the  success  of  their 
schools.  With  the  ability  to  have  the  best  schools 
of  any  state  in  the  Union,  it  is  acknowledged  that 
they  are  surpassed  by  many  others. 

Connecticut,  however,  has  caught  the  spirit  of 
improvement,  and  during  the  last  ten  years  has  made 
considerable  progress.  In  1838,  a  Board  of  Education 
was  instituted  like  that  of  Massachusetts,  and  Henry 
Barnard,  Esq.  was  appointed  secretary.  In  1842,  the 
board  was  abolished,  and  the  state  relapsed  into  its 
former  condition.  During  the  short  period  of  the 
existence  of  the  board,  its  indefatigable  secretary  had 
explored  the  state  pretty  thoroughly,  and  awakened 
a  new  interest  in  the  cause  of  education.  An  im 
pulse  was  given  which  did  not  cease,  though  the 
board  was  abolished.  County  conventions  were 
holden,  and  an  agent  kept  in  the  field  at  the  expense 
of  individuals,  arid  "  the  subject  was  kept  before  the 
people."  In  1845,  the  commissioner  of  the  school 
fund  was  made  superintendent  of  common  schools. 
It  is  his  duty  to  receive  returns  from  the  district,  and 
to  report  annually  to  the  legislature.  These  reports 
are  published  and  scattered  through  the  state.  In 
1849,  another  Board  of  Education  was  instituted, 
with  authority  to  establish  a  normal  school.  The 
board  determined  to  locate  it  somewhere  near  the 
centre  of  the  state  j  and,  other  things  being  equal,  at 


58  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

the  place  that  would  raise  the  largest  sum  of  money. 
Berlin  raised  $16,000  for  buildings  and  apparatus, 
and  the  school  went  into  operation  in  May,  1850. 
Henry  Barnard,  Esq.  has  the  general  supervision  of 
the  school,  and,  at  the  same  time,  performs  the  duties 
of  secretary  of  the  board.  He  is  not  expected  to 
teach.  Rev.  T.  D.  P.  Stone  is  the  principal  teacher. 
In  1849,  the  income  of  the  school  fund  was  sufficient 
to  give  to  each  child  in  the  state,  between  four  and 
sixteen,  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents. 

RHODE  ISLAND.  In  the  original  polity  of  this  state, 
there  was  no  provision  for  education.  It  was  con 
sidered  a  matter  for  individual  conscience  and  paren 
tal  duty.  In  1800,  a  system  of  free  schools  was 
established  by  law  ;  but  it  met  with  an  opposition 
which  resulted  in  its  repeal  in  1803.  The  city  of 
Providence,  however,  continued  to  act  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  law,  and  was  greatly  benefited. 

Things  remained  in  this  situation  until  1828,  when 
the  legislature  established  a  system  of  free  schools 
which  has  remained  to  this  time,  and  may  be  con 
sidered  as  a  part  of  the  settled  policy  of  the  state. 
They  made  provision  that  a  sum  not  exceeding  ten 
thousand  dollars  should  be  distributed  among  the 
schools  established  in  all  those  towns  that>  should 
comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  law.  In  1839, 
the  sum  to  be  distributed  annually  was  increased  to 
$25,000. 

In  1843,  it  was  said  there  were  1,600  adults  in  the 
state  who  could  not  read,  while  in  Connecticut,  with 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  59 

a  population  three  times  greater,  there  were  only  five 
hundred  and  twenty-six,  and  that  they  were  depend 
ent  on  other  states  for  clergymen,  lawyers,  physi 
cians,  and  school  teachers.  The  legislature,  appalled 
by  the  view  they  had  of  the  low  state  of  the  schools, 
authorized  the  governor  to  appoint  a  superintendent, 
who  should  perform  the  same  service  in  Rhode  Isl 
and  that  the  secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education  was 
performing  in  Massachusetts.  Henry  Barnard  was 
appointed  to  that  office,  and  continued  his  labors  till 
1848.  The  state,  being  small,  was  soon  thoroughly 
explored,  and  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  primary 
education.  The  interest  in  common  schools  in  that 
state  is  now  fully  equal  to  that  felt  in  those  where 
improvements  began  to  be  made  much  earlier. 

MAINE,  being  a  part  of  Massachusetts  until  1820, 
had  the  same  common  school  system,  and  retains  it 
still.  A  permanent  school  fund  was  commenced  in 
1833.  The  money  was  to  be  derived  from  the  sale 
of  twenty  townships  of  land  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  state.  In  1845,  the  fund  amounted  to  $57,629. 
The  interest  of  this  and  the  bank  tax,  which  is  about 
$25,000,  is  distributed  annually  among  the  schools 
of  the  state.  The  towns  are  required  to  raise  by 
tax  a  sum  not  less  than  forty  cents  to  each  inhab 
itant.  The  schools  are  free  to  all  the  children  of  a 
specified  age. 

In  1844,  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction 
held  its  annual  meeting  at  Portland.  It  was  attended 
by  a  great  number  of  the  teachers  of  Maine,  and  a 


60  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

new  interest  was  awakened  in  the  cause  of  common 
schools,  which  resulted  in  the  holding  of  a  state 
educational  convention  at  Augusta,  in  1846.  This 
body  appointed  a  committee  to  petition  the  legisla 
ture  to  afford  some  aid  in  improving  their  schools. 
Their  request  was  granted.  A  Board  of  Education 
was  established,  consisting  of  fourteen  members, 
one  from  each  county,  with  power  to  appoint  a 
secretary,  whose  business  it  is  "  to  make  poor  schools 
good,  and  good  schools  better." 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE  has  many  enlightened  and  patri 
otic  men ;  but  the  progress  of  the  school  reform  has 
been  slow.  Its  system  of  free  schools  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  other  New  England  States.  It  has  no 
school  fund,  but  the  tax  on  banks,  amounting  to 
about  $12,000  annually,  is  appropriated  to  the  schools. 
In  1846,  some  changes  were  made  in  the  school  laws, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  one  authorizing  the 
legislature  to  appoint  annually  a  commissioner  of 
common  schools,  who  sends  blank  forms  to  all  the 
town  committees  to  be  filled  and  returned.  He  is 
to  spend  twenty  weeks  each  year  in  travelling 
through  different  counties,  delivering  addresses,  and 
laboring  in  every  practicable  way  he  can  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  common  schools.  Provision  was  also 
made  for  holding  Teachers'  Institutes.  Professor  R. 
S.  Rust  has  held  the  office  of  commissioner  to  the 
present  time.  A  new  interest  has  been  awakened  ; 
teachers  are  improving,  and  the  amount  of  money 
raised  has  been  increasing  for  several  years,  and  in 
no  year  has  been  as  great  as  in  1849. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  61 

VERMONT  has  a  system  of  free  schools,  and  once 
began  to  establish  a  school  fund ;  but  in  1845  it  was 
applied  to  the  payment  of  state  debts.  A  law  was 
enacted  the  same  year,  providing  for  the  appointment 
of  state,  county,  and  town  superintendents,  through 
whom  the  statistics  of  the  schools  are  collected,  and 
much  valuable  information  respecting  the  condition 
and  wants  of  the  schools  is  disseminated  among  the 
people. 

NEW  YORK.  In  April,  1805,  the  legislature  of  this 
state  appropriated  the  money  arising  from  the  sale  of 
500,000  acres  of  land,  for  a  school  fund.  The  inter 
est  was  to  be  added  to  the  principal  until  the  annual 
income  should  exceed  $50,000,  when  it  was  to  be 
distributed  among  the  schools.  From  1810  to  1821, 
the  fees  received  by  clerks  of  the  Supreme  Courts, 
over  and  above  their  salaries  and  expenses,  were 
added  to  the  same  fund.  The  common  school  sys 
tem  of  New  York  was  established  in  1812,  and  the 
first  distribution  of  the  income  of  the  fund  was  made 
in  1816.  The  school  fund  proper,  in  1849,  was 
$2,170,514.  The  state  has  also  a  literary  fund 
amounting  to  $265,306,  the  income  of  which  is  dis 
tributed  annually  among  the  colleges  and  academies. 
The  state's  portion  of  the  surplus  revenue  was  also 
funded,  and  a  part  of  it  is  appropriated  to  the  benefit 
of  common  schools,  and  a  part  to  higher  seminaries. 
All  the  funds  of  the  state  devoted  to  educational 
purposes  amount  to  six  and  a  half  millions  of  dol 
lars. 

6 


62  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

There  is  a  corporation  consisting  of  twenty-one 
members,  eighteen  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the 
legislature  during  life  or  good  behavior ;  the  other 
three  are  the  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  and  sec 
retary  of  state,  who  is  also  superintendent  of  common 
schools.  They  are  called  "  regents  of  the  university," 
because  they  were  the  trustees  of  a  state  university 
chartered  about  thirty-five  years  ago,  which  never 
went  into  operation.  The  regents  have  power  to  in 
corporate  academies,  to  confer  medical  and  honorary 
degrees,  and  to  distribute  the  school  fund.  They 
are,  in  fact,  a  board  of  education. 

The  secretary  receives  the  reports  from  the  schools, 
and  reports  the  same  to  the  legislature.  New  York 
began  to  require  returns  when  they  commenced  the 
distribution  of  public  money,  in  1816. 

Teachers'  Institutes  originated  in  this  state  in 
1843. 

A  normal  school  was  established  at  Albany  in 
1844.  The  act  of  the  legislature  creating  it  was 
passed  May  7  of  that  year  ;  it  was  opened  in  Decem 
ber  following,  under  the  care  of  David  P.  Page,  who 
died  January  1,  1848,  aged  38.  A  new  building,  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  school,  was  erected  in 
1849 ;  it  cost  $28,500,  and  is  the  most  spacious  and 
best  arranged  building  for  the  purpose  there  is  in  the 
United  States.  Prior  to  January,  1850,  1130  young 
men  and  women  had  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  the 
school. 

In  New  York,  the  schools  are  free  only  while  the 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  63 

school  is  supported  by  public  money.  The  schools 
are  lengthened  by  the  payment  of  a  certain  sum  by 
the  parents  or  guardians.  There  is  no  tax  laid  upon 
property  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  children.  In  1849, 
a  free  school  law  was  passed  by  the  legislature,  and 
submitted  to  the  people  for  adoption  or  rejection.  It 
was  adopted  by  a  majority  of  150,000  votes  ;  where 
upon  the  opposers  of  the  law  declared  that  the  people 
did  not  understand  the  question,  and  that  thousands 
voted  for  it,  who,  if  they  had  been  fully  informed, 
would  have  voted  against  it.  The  legislature,  there 
fore,  ordered  that  the  bill  be  sent  back  to  the  people  ; 
and  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  November,  1850,  they 
are  to  say  distinctly  whether  the  Empire  State  shall 
have  a  system  of  free  schools  or  not. 

NEW  JERSEY  has  a  school  fund,  amounting  to  a 
little  more  than  $370,000.  The  income  of  the  fund 
is  expended  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  children  in  the 
state.  This,  however,  is  sufficient  to  sustain  the 
schools  only  a  short  time  ;  they  are  lengthened  by  a 
tax  on  the  scholars,  payable  by  the  parent,  as  in  New 
York.  The  practical  operation  of  this  system  is, 
that  many  poor  people  send  their  children  to  school 
only  while  the  public  money  lasts,  and  some  not 
even  during  that  time,  because  they  are  ashamed  to 
send  them  while  the  public  money  lasts,  and  then 
take  them  out. 

A  new  impulse  has  of  late  been  given  to  the 
schools  in  this  state.  There  are  twelve  teachers' 
associations.  They  meet  quarterly  to  hear  lectures, 


64  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

and  to  discuss  questions  pertaining  to  this  great  inter 
est.  In  some  of  the  counties,  Institutes  have  been 
holden. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  The  constitution  of  this  state,  in 
1790,  provided  that  "  the  legislature,  as  soon  as  may 
be,  shall  provide  by  law  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  throughout  the  state,  in  such  manner  that 
the  poor  shall  be  taught  gratis"  The  legislature 
neglected,  for  a  long  time,  to  establish  schools  ;  but 
whenever  a  college  or  an  academy  was  incorporated, 
it  was  on  the  condition  that  tuition  should  be  free  to 
a  certain  number  of  the  poor.  The  consequence 
was,  that  public  schools  came  to  be  regarded  as 
schools  for  the  poor.  A  prejudice  was  created  against 
them.  The  poor  were  too  proud  to  have  their  names 
enrolled  in  the  county  and  state  records  as  unable  to 
educate  their  children.  In  1833,  the  state  awoke 
from  its  lethargy,  and  in  1834,  the  legislature  estab 
lished  a  common  school  system.  It  was  amended, 
and  made  more  practical,  in  1836 ;  since  which  the 
cause  of  education  has  been  highly  prosperous.  The 
towns  are  divided  into  districts,  and  $190,000  from 
state  funds  are  annually  distributed  among  the  dis 
tricts  that  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the 
school  law,  which  obliges  them  to  raise  a  certain 
amount  by  tax.  The  amount  raised  by  tax,  in  1849, 
was  $392,442.  If  any  district  does  not  comply  with 
the  law,  they  do  without  schools,  or  support  them  by 
voluntary  contribution.  There  is  one  peculiarity  in 
the  school  laws  of  this  state.  It  obliges  every  dis- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  65 

trict  to  raise  money  enough  by  tax  to  provide  a  school 
for  the  poor  gratis.  It  would  be  better  to  oblige 
them  to  raise  money  for  the  support  of  schools  open 
to  all,  both  rich  and  poor.  In  1836,  the  law  was 
accepted  by  536  districts ;  in  1847,  by  1,054;  and 
in  1849,  by  1,306.  The  secretary  of  state  is,  ex 
officio,  superintendent  of  common  schools. 

OHIO  has  a  school  fund  amounting  to  $1,520,000, 
and  distributes  among  the  districts,  annually,  $290,000. 
The  present  school  system  had  its  origin  in  an  act  of 
the  legislature  passed  in  March,  1838,  which  went 
into  operation  in  April  of  that  year.  The  secretary 
of  state  is,  ex  qfficio,  superintendent  of  the  schools, 
and  the  state  auditor  has  the  general  supervision  of 
the  school  fund.  The  county  auditors  are  county 
superintendents,  and  each  county  has  a  board  of  three 
examiners,  who,  with  the  auditors,  constitute  the 
county  Board  of  Education.  The  town  clerk  is  the 
town  superintendent,  and  each  district  chooses  annu 
ally  three  directors.  Each  town  is  required  to  assess 
a  tax  on  all  the  property  for  the  support  of  schools, 
which  are  open  and  free  to  all  the  children.  County 
conventions  are  holden,  and  Teachers'  Institutes. 

MICHIGAN  has  a  school  fund  derived  from  the  sale 
of  lands  given  by  the  United  States  for  that  purpose. 
It  yields  already  a  little  more  than  $30,000  annually. 
A  tax  of  half  a  mill  on  each  dollar  of  the  property  in 
every  town  is  required  to  be  raised,  and  permission 
given  to  increase  it  as  much  as  they  choose.  Each 
town  is  required  to  maintain  a  school  library,  and  the 
6* 


66  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

books  are  to  be  distributed  once  in  three  months 
among  the  districts,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
scholars  in  each.  In  1849,  there  were  349  township 
libraries,  containing  38,303  volumes.  The  legisla 
ture  have  established  a  Board  of  Education,  and 
authorized  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school. 

WISCONSIN.  "  This  state  has  the  basis  of  a  most 
magnificent  school  fund.  It  consists  of  a  domain 
equal  to  2,281  £  square  miles,  there  being  1500  towns, 
one  mile  square  on  each  of  which  is  devoted  to  this 
object  j  and  besides  this,  78 1J  sections  were  given 
by  Congress,  at  the  admission  of  the  state  into  the 
Union,  making  in  all  1,460,000  acres,  which  are  valued 
at  $1,70  per  acre,  giving  a  fund  of  $278,912.  In 
addition  to  this,  all  property  that  may  accrue  to  the 
state  by  escheat  or  forfeiture,  and  the  money  received 
for  fines,  are  to  be  added  to  the  fund.  The  consti 
tution  requires  that  each  town  shall  raise  annually, 
by  tax,  for  the  support  of  common  schools,  a  sum  not 
less  than  half  the  amount  received  from  the  fund.  It 
is  thought  the  amount  for  distribution  in  1851  will  be 
about  $106,878,  and  that  the  number  of  children 
will  be  this  year  about  100,000,  which  will  make  an 
average  of  $1,00  a  scholar.  This  is  a  very  good 
beginning  for  a  new  state,  which  a  few  years  ago 
was  a  wilderness  ;  and  it  augurs  well  for  the  future 
prospects  of  the  state." 

The  other  free  states  have  not  yet  adopted  any 
system  of  common  school  instruction.  The  pro 
visions  made  by  Congress,  appropriating  the  sixteenth 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  67 

section  in  every  township  as  a  fund  for  the  support 
of  schools,  will  constitute  a  large  fund.  Great  in 
terest  is  felt  in  the  subject  by  many  leading  and 
influential  men,  and  there  is  no  doubt  they  will  soon 
be  blessed  with  an  efficient  system  of  free  schools. 

Owing  to  the  sparseness  of  population  in  the  slave 
states,  it  is  manifestly  quite  impossible  to  establish 
an  efficient  system  of  free  schools. 

KENTUCKY  is  awake  to  the  subject,  and  is  doing 
well.  Rev.  Dr.  R.  Breckenridge  has  been  appointed 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  is  devoting 
himself  earnestly  to  the  cause.  The  state  has  a 
school  fund  amounting  to  $1.299,268.  The  number 
of  white  children  in  the  state  in  1849,  between  five 
and  sixteen  years  of  age,  was  192,990,  of  whom 
87,496  were  in  the  public  schools. 

In  1849,  the  legislature  of  VIRGINIA  passed  a  law 
authorizing  any  county  that  chose  to  do  so,  to  estab 
lish  within  its  bounds  a  system  of  free  schools.  The 
law,  however,  had  more  particular  reference  to  those 
counties  in  which  there  are  but  few  slaves;  it  is 
rather  intended  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor.  The 
state  has,  in  years  past,  made  some  appropriation  for 
educating  the  children  of  the  poor.  I  rejoice,  how 
ever,  in  the  evidence  there  is  of  progress  in  this  old 
commonwealth.  In  1683,  the  governor  of  Virginia 
"  thanked  God  that  the  state  had  no  free  schools." 

The  state  of  MISSISSIPPI,  in  1850,  appropriated 
$200,000  for  the  support  of  schools. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  review  of  the  school  sys- 


68  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

terns  of  the  several  states,  that  New  England  and 
some  of  the  free  states  of  the  west  go  for  educating  all 
the  children  at  the  public  expense.  It  is  not  so  in 
the  Middle  States,  but  it  is  hoped  it  will  be. 

It  will  be  seen,  also,  that  nearly  all  the  public 
funds  for  common  schools  have  been  gathered  during 
the  last  fifty  years. 


SECTION  2.  —  Infant  Schools. 

INFANT  schools  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States  from  Europe  in  1827.  Much  was  said  in  their 
praise,  in  England,  during  that  and  the  preceding 
year.  They  were  recommended  by  such  men  as 
Lord  Brougham,  Wilberforce,  and  Macaulay.  Ameri 
cans,  who  were  in  England  during  those  years,  visit 
ed  the  infant  schools,  which  were  among  the  lions 
of  the  day.  Early  in  1827,  there  was  a  meeting  of 
a  few  friends  of  education  in  Hartford,  at  which  Pro 
fessor  Goodrich  of  Yale  College,  and  H.  L.  Ellsworth, 
Esq.,  who  had  just  returned  from  England,  made 
some  statements  respecting  the  merits  of  these  schools : 
not  one  had  then  been  organized  in  the  United  States. 
The  American  Journal  of  Education  published  a 
notice  of  this  meeting,  and  highly  commended  this 
class  of  schools. 

In  May,  1827,  an  Infant  School  Society  was  or 
ganized  in  New  York,  and  a  school  was  commenced. 
In  May,  1828,  similar  societies  were  formed  in  Bos- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  69 

ton  and  Philadelphia,  and  very  soon  in  many  cities 
and  large  towns,  so  that  as  early  as  1829,  there  was 
scarcely  a  considerable  town  in  the  Northern  States 
that  was  not  blessed  with  an  infant  school.  The 
Boston  society  received  such  liberal  donations  of 
money,  that  at  the  close  of  the  first  year,  after  paying 
its  expenses,  it  had  enough  to  sustain  its  schools 
another  year. 

They  were  called  infant  schools  because  they 
were  designed  more  particularly  for  very  young  chil 
dren.  The  exercises  consisted  in  committing  simple 
truths  and  facts  to  memory,  which  were  repeated  in 
concert,  and  accompanied  by  some  appropriate  gesture 
or  movement  of  the  body.  The  object  seemed  to  be 
to  occupy  the  children  all  the  time  with  some  pleas 
ing  exercise.  The  children  would  stand  in  a  straight 
line,  hold  their  arms  stiff  by  their  side,  and,  imitating 
the  teacher,  swing  them  backward  and  forward,  say 
ing  at  the  same  time,  "  shoulder  joint,  shoulder  joint," 
repeating  it  several  times  in  succession,  and  keeping 
exact  time  j  then  they  would  raise  and  depress  the 
forearm,  repeating  the  name  of  the  joint  used,  and 
then  the  wrist  joint  was  exercised  and  named.  They 
would  march  in  single  file  around  the  room,  and, 
as  the  foot  struck  the  floor,  would  say,  "  right  foot, 
left  foot,  right  foot,  left  foot,"  &c.  They  were 
taught  to  count,  and  to  sing  simple  rhymes,  convey 
ing  scientific  or  moral  truths.  It  was  interesting  to 
see  fifty  or  one  hundred  little  children  go  through 
with  these  exercises,  keeping  exact  time,  and  it  is 


70  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

not  strange  that  their  value  was  overrated.  In  1829, 
the  infant  schools  of  Boston  were  exhibited  in  one  of 
the  churches,  and  the  members  of  the  legislature 
were  invited  to  be  present.  The  papers  of  the  day 
spoke  of  it  as  an  exhibition  that  would  do  great 
good,  for  the  law-makers  would,  very  likely,  on  their 
return  home,  take  measures  for  establishing  them  in 
the  towns  they  represented. 

When  the  novelty  of  these  schools  ceased  to  attract 
attention,  they  began  to  decline.  It  was  discovered 
that  the  children  learned  very  little  that  they  would 
not  have  learned  very  soon  if  they  never  had  attend 
ed  such  a  school.  Parents  became  unwilling  to  hire 
teachers  to  tell  their  children  which  was  the  right 
foot  and  which  the  left,  which  was  the  elbow  joint 
and  which  the  wrist. 

In  1833,  a  writer  in  the  Annals  of  Education  in 
quired  why  there  was  so  little  said  respecting  them. 
He  thought  they  had  been  abused  ;  that  more  had 
been  expected  from  them  than  could  be  realized, 
though,  under  skilful  management,  they  might  be 
highly  useful. 

All  there  was  in  this  class  of  schools  that  was  of 
any  value,  was  introduced  into  district  schools,  and 
they  soon  ceased  to  exist.  They  were  the  means  of 
some  good  ;  parents  and  teachers  learned  that  it  was 
not  best  to  confine  little  children  six  hours  in  a  day 
to  a  school-room,  without  exercise  and  without  much 
instruction.  They  accomplished  their  mission. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  71 

SECTION  3.     Lancasterian,  Pestalozzian,  and  Fel- 
lenberg  Schools. 

THESE  three  systems  of  teaching  originated  in 
Europe  at  the  close  of  the  last,  and  beginning  of  the 
present,  century,  and  have  since  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States.  Each  has  its  peculiarity. 

The  Lancasterian  is  the  monitorial  system,  the 
object  of  which  is  to  teach  the  greatest  number  at 
the  least  possible  expense. 

The  Pestalozzian  aims  to  give  distinct  ideas,  by 
presenting  a  subject,  as  far  as  it  can  be  done,  to  the 
senses,  and  by  an  examination  of  the  thing  itself, 
rather  than  from  a  description  of  it. 

The  Fellenberg  system  includes  physical  as  well 
as  intellectual  and  moral  training,  and  requires  pupils 
to  devote  a  part  of  the  time  to  manual  labor.  They 
have  been  called,  in  this  country,  manual  labor 
schools. 

There  were  two  men,  Rev.  Andrew  Bell,  D.  D., 
and  Joseph  Lancaster,  a  duaker,  who  claimed  the 
honor  of  having  invented,  and  put  in  successful 
operation,  the  monitorial  system.  Dr.  Bell,  it  would 
seem,  established  a  school  at  Madras  on  this  plan, 
about  the  year  1800,  but  borrowed  the  idea  from 
the  native  schools  of  Hiudostan.  Lancaster  estab 
lished  a  school  on  this  system  in  England,  in  1803, 
and  did  not  borrow  the  idea  from  any  one.  It  seems, 
therefore,  that  so  far  as  the  genius  of  the  invention 
is  concerned,  Lancaster  was  entitled  to  the  highest 


72  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

honor.  Such  has  been  the  award  of  public  opinion. 
The  schools  have  been  called  Lancasterian,  or  moni 
torial. 

Dr.  Bell  died  in  England,  in  1832,  aged  eighty. 
Mr.  Lancaster,  in  consequence  of  opposition  to  him 
by  Dr.  Bell's  friends,  and  with  the  hope  of  finding  a 
larger  field  of  usefulness,  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  settled  in  Baltimore,  in  1820.  In  his 
schools,  one  teacher  may  instruct  four  hundred  pupils, 
by  instructing  the  monitors,  who  immediately  teach 
the  lesson  they  have  recited  to  a  class  of  children. 
He  hears  the  monitors  read  or  spell,  and  they  hear 
their  respective  classes  in  the  same  way.  Of  course, 
the  instruction  imparted  to  the  children  by  the  mon 
itors  cannot  be  of  a  very  high  order,  and  there  is  no 
reason  for  introducing- this  system,  except  where  the 
learners  are  numerous  and  poverty-stricken,  and 
teachers  very  scarce.  It  is  better  than  nothing.  Hon. 
H.  Mann  says  there  is  no  reason  for  calling  those  he 
saw  in  England  "monitorial,"  unless  it  be  to  admon 
ish  the  public  to  guard  against  being  duped  by  them. 

A  gentleman  from  the  city  of  New  York  was  in 
England  soon  after  Mr.  Lancaster  commenced  his 
school  in  that  country,  and  having  made  himself 
acquainted  with  the  system,  on  his  return,  opened  a 
school  in  New  York.  All  the  public  schools  of  that 
city,  for  a  number  of  years,  were  instructed  by  this 
method. 

During  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  their  pop 
ularity  has  greatly  diminished,  and  very  few  such 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  73 

schools  now  exist.  Mr.  Lancaster  had  better  views 
of  the  structure  of  a  school-room,  of  the  importance 
of  order,  and  of  the  necessity  of  keeping  children 
occupied  and  interested,  than  any  teacher  of  his  age. 
In  these  respects,  he  made  some  valuable  improve 
ments,  which  have  been  separated  from  what  was 
faulty,  and  have  been  introduced  into  other  schools. 

John  Henry  Pestalozzi  was  a  native  of  Switzer 
land,  born  in  1746.  He  studied  theology  and  law. 
Afterwards  he  became  a  farmer,  and  then  a  calico 
manufacturer  ;  but  not  succeeding  in  any  business, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  the  instruction  of  children, 
and  particularly  the  children  of  the  poor  in  the  cities 
and  villages  of  Switzerland.  He  was  a  man  of 
great  genius  and  benevolence.  He  aimed  to  com 
municate  all  instruction  by  an  immediate  address  to 
the  semises,  and  to  call  all  the  powers  of  the  child's 
mind  into  active  exercise,  and  not  permit  him  to  be 
a  mere  passive  recipient  of  what  was  said.  Instead 
of  requiring  a  child  to  commit  to  memory  a  descrip 
tion  of  a  mountain  or  river,  he  would  take  him  to 
the  base  of  the  one,  or  the  bank  of  the  other,  and 
require  him  to  describe  it  himself.  A  Pestalozzian 
school-room  must  be  well  furnished  with  specimens 
of  natural  history,  maps,  pictures,  models,  and  appa 
ratus.  For  the  introduction  of  these  things  into 
schools  in  modern  times,  we  are  indebted  more,  prob 
ably,  to  the  suggestions  and  labors  of  Pestalozzi, 
than  to  any  other  man.  He  died  at  Brugg,  in  1827, 
aged  eighty-one. 
7- 


74  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

Emmanuel  von  Fellenberg  was  a  native  of  Swit 
zerland,  and  was  born  the  same  year  that  Joseph  Lan 
caster  was,  in  1771.  He  was  a  man  of  patrician 
rank,  and  an  heir  to  a  large  fortune.  He  was  edu 
cated  for  political  life,  travelled  over  all  Switzerland 
twice,  and  made  himself  well  acquainted  with  the 
condition  of  the  people.  In  the  revolutionary  days 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  price  was  offered  for  his 
head ;  and  once  he  was  on  the  point  of  embarking  for 
America,  but  finally  concluded  to  relinquish  political 
life,  and  settle  down  quietly  among  his  native  moun 
tains,  and  devote  himself  to  the  improvement  of  the 
people.  He  was  convinced  that,  in  order  to  improve 
the  condition  of  society,  we  must  begin  with  the 
young,  and  educate  them  right,  and  that  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  extremes  of  society,  to  the 
children  of  the  rich  and  poor,  to  those  who  are  to  be 
ruled  as  well  as  to  those  who  will  be  their  ruler's.  He 
thought  that  children  of  all  classes  ought  to  be  edu 
cated  together,  so  that  when  they  shall  come  to  act 
their  part  on  the  stage  of  life  they  may  feel  a  sympa 
thy  for  each  other.  He  was  in  favor  of  connecting 
with  schools  the  various  kinds  of  business  in  which 
most  of  the  laboring  classes  will  engage,  for  the  sake 
of  exercise,  and  to  obtain  a  more  perfect  knowledge 
of  some  art  or  trade  than  they  otherwise  would.  He 
established  a  school  at  Hofwyl,  six  miles  from  Berne. 
There  were  connected  with  it  a  farm  and  mechanic 
shops.  It  was  the  first  manual  labor  school  ever  es 
tablished. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  75 

Between  1825  and  1835,  a  considerable  number  of 
manual  labor  schools  were  established  in  the  United 
States.  They  have  not  been  very  prosperous;  most 
of  them  have  been  abandoned.  The  Mission  Insti 
tute,  at  Quincy,  Illinois,  is  a  manual  labor  school  ; 
and  the  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  at  South  Hadley, 
Mass.,  educates  young  ladies  at  a  moderate  expense, 
by  requiring  the  pupils  to  perform  the  labor  in  the 
boarding  establishment. 

Many  valuable  hints  have  been  derived  from  each 
of  these  three  systems,  and  many  of  their  principles 
have  been  introduced  into  most  of  the  schools  in  the 
United  States.  Though  we  have  no  schools  that  are 
purely  Lancasterian,  Pestalozzian,  or  Fellenberg,  yet 
we  have  derived  much  benefit  from  them  all. 


SECTION  4.      Colleges. 

FIFTY  years  ago,  there  were  twenty-five  colleges  in 
the  United  States ;  now  there  are  one  hundred  and 
twenty. 

In  1801,  there  was    1  Baptist  college ;  now,  13. 

"      "     there  were  2  Episcopal  "  "     10. 

"      "     there  was    1  Methodist  "  "     13. 

"      "     there  were  2  Roman  Catholic       "  "     13. 

"      "       "        "    19  Cong'l  and  Presb.    "  "    71. 

There  were,  in  1801, 

In  New  England,         7  colleges  ;  now  14. 

In  the  Middle  States,  6         "  "    22. 

In  the  Southern    "      9         "  "     37. 

In  the  Western     "      3         «  "     47. 


76  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Many  of  these  colleges  have  been  recently  char 
tered,  and  are  very  poorly  endowed  ;  while  many  of 
the  older  ones  are  noble  institutions,  and  are  estab 
lished  on  a  permanent  basis. 

During  the  last  fifty  years,  there  have  been  great 
changes  in  the  course  of  study  in  these  institutions. 
Nearly  as  much  Latin  and  Greek  are  now  required  for 
admission  as  was  then  required  for  graduation.  Eng 
lish  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  geography,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  formed  a  part  of  the  col 
lege  course. 

There  have  been  added  to  the  list  of  college 
studies  chemistry,  geology,  mineralogy,  botany,  po 
litical  economy,  and  the  modern  languages  ;  while 
the  departments  of  mathematics,  intellectual  and 
natural  philosophy,  have  been  greatly  enlarged.  The 
improvement  in  text-books  has  been  very  great.  In 
1801,  the  quantity  of  apparatus  was  very  small,  and 
the  experimental  lectures  of  the  professors  very 
meagre  ;  now,  almost  every  college  is  able  to  illus 
trate  all  the  principles  of  the  sciences  very  fully,  and 
to  show  their  practical  applications.  Many  of  our 
academies  have  the  means  of  illustrating  the  sciences 
more  fully  than  our  best  colleges  could  do  it  at  the 
commencement  of  the  period  under  review. 

There  was  no  very  decided  or  marked  improve 
ment  in  colleges  until  the  public  attention  began  to 
be  turned  to  the  improvement  of  the  common  schools, 
about  1825.  Then  it  was  said,  by  many,  The  course 
of  study  in  colleges  is  too  limited.  One  said,  Too 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  77 

much  attention  is  given  to  the  dead  languages  ;  the 
modern  ought  to  be  introduced  ;  another  said,  Let  us 
have  less  pure  mathematics,  and  more  mixed  ;  let  the 
college  course  have  a  more  direct  reference  to  the 
profession  which  each  young  man  has  in  prospect. 
In  1827,  the  faculty  of  Yale  College  appointed  a 
committee  to  report  on  the  subject.  They  did  so, 
and  brought  forth  their  strong  reasons  for  pursuing 
the  same  general  course  that  had  been  pursued.  They 
recommended  more  languages  and  mathematics,  rath 
er  than  less.  That  report  may  be  found  in  volume 
15  of  Silliman's  Journal.  It  is  an  able  document, 
and  shows  that  a  college  education  should  aim  at 
thorough  mental  discipline,  which  is  equally  useful 
to  men  of  every  profession.  Many  valuable  articles, 
during  that  and  subsequent  years,  appeared  in  the 
Quarterly  Register,  and,  indeed,  in  nearly  all  the 
periodicals  of  the  day. 

The  faculty  of  the  Vermont  University  took  up 
the  subject,  and  published  their  views,  which  coin 
cided  in  the  main  with  those  of  the  faculty  of  Yale 
College.  They  judged  it  expedient,  however,  to 
admit  students  to  a  partial  course,  to  study  with  the 
college  classes  mathematics,  or  chemistry,  or  any 
other  science  they  chose.  Those  who  pursued  a 
partial  course  were  not  examined  for  admission,  nor 
did  they  receive  a  diploma.  Dartmouth  College 
made  greater  innovations  than  did  the  University  of 
Vermont. 

The  general  result  of  this  agitation  was  favorable. 


78  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

There  is  now  a  fuller  conviction,  than  existed  before, 
that  the  general  course  of  college  study  is  wise  and 
judicious  ;  that  it  ought  to  be  extended  ;  and  that,  in 
order  to  do  it,  the  terms  of  admission  should  be 
elevated.  This  has  been  done. 

There  have  been  considerable  changes  in  the 
mode  of  government  in  these  institutions.  It  is  now 
more  paternal  and  less  monarchical.  There  is  less 
attempt  to  overawe  students  by  adhering  to  customs 
that  had  been  handed  down  from  the  dark  ages. 
There  is  not  that  wide  separation  between  the  classes 
that  once  existed.  There  has  been,  also,  a  great 
improvement  in  the  moral  and  religious  character  of 
the  young  men  that  are  collected  in  these  sem 
inaries.  Fifty  years  ago,  infidelity  was  exceed 
ingly  prevalent.  A  pious  young  man  was  often 
the  butt  of  ridicule.  Sometimes  not  a  tenth  of 
the  students  were  pious ;  and  if  those  that  were  met 
for  prayer,  it  was,  often,  at  a  private  house  in  the 
town,  to  prevent  being  annoyed  by  their  fellow- 
students.  The  change  in  this  respect  has  been  so 
great,  that  some  will  be ,  slow  to  believe  the  state 
ments  I  have  made. 

The  corporation  of  Brown  University  are  now 
making  some  important  changes  in  that  institution. 
To  enable  them  to  carry  out  their  plan,  $125,000 
have  been  raised,  and  some  new  professors  have  been 
appointed.  They  propose  to  abandon  the  system  of 
adjusting  the  studies  to  the  term  of  four  years,  and 
arrange  the  studies  so  that  each  may  study  what  he 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  79 

chooses,  and  only  what  he  chooses.  Students  ,  may 
remain  a  single  term,  a  year  or  more,  as  they  choose. 
They  will  confer  degrees,  however,  upon  none  but 
those  who  sustain  themselves  in  an  examination  in 
such  studies  as  may  be  ordained  by  the  corporation. 
Omnes  res  tempus  probat. 


SECTION  5.    Professional  Schools. 

IT  was  formerly  customary  for  young  men,  qualify 
ing  themselves  for  either  of  the  learned  professions, 
to  spend  one  or  more  years  with  some  individual 
distinguished  for  his  professional  knowledge,  who 
directed  his  reading,  and,  by  conversations,  furnished 
him  with  such  information  as  his  time  and  circum 
stances  would  permit.  The  libraries  of  these  private 
teachers  were  limited,  and  they  were  unable  to  fur 
nish  their  pupils  with  a  full  and  systematic  view  of 
all  the  topics  on  which  it  is  desirable  that  students 
should  have  extended  and  thorough  information.  It 
was  found  to  be  necessary  to  establish  professional 
schools,  having  learned  professors  and  large  libraries, 
•where  young  men  might  acquire  a  more  thorough 
knowledge  of  their  profession  than  they  could  with 
private  teachers. 

Theological  Seminaries.  —  It  is  said  that  a  semi 
nary  of  this  kind  was  established  at  New  Brunswick, 
by  the  Dutch  Reformed  church,  in  1784.  This  is 
not  exactly  true.  In  1773,  it  was  proposed  to  estab- 


80  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

lish  a  professorship  in  theology  in  connection  with 
the  college  at  that  place,  and  Dr.  Livingston  was  ap 
pointed  professor  by  the  classis  of  Amsterdam.  The 
revolutionary  war  commenced,  and  nothing  more  was 
done.  In  1784,  the  appointment  of  Dr.  Livingston 
was  confirmed  by  the  convention  of  the  Dutch  church, 
and  he  began  a  course  of  lectures  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  to  young  men  preparing  for  the  ministry.  He 
lectured  five  days  in  a  week,  and  continued  this 
course  till  1797.  This  could  hardly  be  called  a 
theological  seminary,  and  certainly  it  was  not  at 
New  Brunswick. 

In  1807,  the  college  at  New  Brunswick  being  in  a 
languishing  condition,  an  attempt  was  made  to  revive 
it,  which  was  successful,  and  a  professorship  in  the 
ology  was  established.  Dr.  Livingston  was  appoint 
ed  professor,  and  at  the  same  time  president  of  the 
college.  He  entered  upon  his  duties  in  October, 
1810.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  said  that  a  theological 
seminary  was  established  at  New  Brunswick  earlier 
than  1810. 

It  is  also  said  that  a  theological  seminary  was 
established  at  Cannonsburg,  Pa.,  in  1792,  by  the 
associate  Presbyterian  church.  This  is  not  exactly 
true.  In  1793,  Rev.  John  Anderson,  D.  D.,  of  Beaver 
county,  Pa.,  began  to  instruct  students  in  theology. 
He  was  called  a  professor,  but  had  no  assistants.  It 
was  a  private  affair,  and  on  a  small  scale.  In  eight 
years,  or  previous  to  1801,  he  introduced  six  young 
men  into  the  ministry.  He  continued  to  teach  in 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  81 

this  way  till  1818,  when  the  theological  seminary  at 
Cannonsburg  was  opened. 

It  is  claimed,  by  the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyte 
rian  church,  that  the  institution  at  New  York,  at  the 
head  of  which  was  John  Mason,  D.  D.,  was  the  first 
theological  seminary  in  the  United  States.  That 
institution  was  established  in  1804,  and  became  ex 
tinct  in  1821.  In  1822,  its  library  was  transferred  to 
Princeton.  In  1829,  the  synod  awoke  from  its  slum 
ber,  and  began  again  to  think  of  establishing  a  theo 
logical  seminary ;  it  applied  to  Princeton  for  the 
library,  and  obtained  it  after  a  protracted  lawsuit.  In 
1836,  they  opened  an  institution  at  Newburg,  N.  Y. 

The  Institution  aUAndover,  which  was  established 
in  1808,  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  oldest 
seminary  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States. 

There  are  now  forty-two  theological  institutions 
in  this  country.  Some  of  them  are  very  small,  and 
their  resources  very  limited.  They  are  divided 
among  the  various  religious  denominations  as  fol 
lows  :  — 


Congregational  (Orthodox,)  6. 

Presbyterian,  15. 

Lutheran  and  Dutch  Ref.,  5. 

Methodists,  1. 


Unitarian, 

Baptist, 

Protestant  Episcopal. 


Of  these,  nine  are  in  the  New  England  States,  fif 
teen  in  the  Middle,  eight  in  the  Southern,  and  ten  in 
the  Western  States. 

The  founding  of  these  institutions  has  had  a  ten 
dency  to  increase  the  number  of  learned  theologians. 


82  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Medical  Schools. — Three  such  schools  were  estab 
lished  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  ; 
the  first  at  Philadelphia,  the  second  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  and  the  third  at  Hanover,  New  Hamp 
shire.  There  are  now  thirty-seven,  of  which  seven 
are  in  the  New  England  States,  eight  in  the  Middle, 
nine  in  the  Southern,  and  eleven  in  the  Western. 
In  these  institutions  there  are  224  professors,  and  the 
number  of  students  who  attend  the  courses  of  lectures 
annually  is  about  4,500.  Some  of  them  have  not 
more  than  twenty-five  students;  and  some,  especially 
the  old  medical  college  at  Philadelphia,  have  more 
than  500.  These  schools  have  had  a  beneficial  effect 
upon  the  science  of  medicine.  "It  has  obliged  those 
who  offer  themselves  as  practitioners  in  the  healing 
art  to  qualify  themselves  more  thoroughly  for  their 
profession.  The  interest  that  has  been  awakened  in 
the  study  of  medicine  has  led,  in  several  states,  to 
the  enactment  of  laws  which  make  it  necessary  for 
young  men  to  be  regularly  licensed  in*  order  to  collect 
their  fees.  Some  remarks  respecting  systems  of 
medicine  and  diseases  will  be  found  in  another 
chapter. 

Law  Schools.  —  There  are  twelve  law  schools  in 
the  United  States,  two  of  which  are  in  the  New  Eng 
land  States,  two  in  the  Middle,  four  in  the  Southern, 
and  four  in  the  Western.  Of  this  number,  six  have 
only  one  professor  each,  and  no  one  more  than 
four.  They  all  have  about  400  students  ;  nearly  one 
fourth  of  them  are  in  the  law  school  at  Cambridge. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  83 

It  is  manifest  that  but  a  small  part  of  those  who 
study  law  deem  it  necessary  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  advantages  of  these  schools.  It  is  said  there  are 
now  19,000  lawyers  in  the  United  States,  or  1  to 
every  1200  of  the  entire  population. 

It  is  now  common  for  lawyers  in  cities  to  devote 
themselves  exclusively  to  a  particular  class  of  cases, 
as  maritime  or  commercial  law,  or  to  conveyancing, 
or  to  trials  before  juries.  This,  probably,  is  one  of 
the  results  of  law  schools. 

Learned  professors  awaken  an  interest  in  a  particu 
lar  department,  arid  teach  young  men  that  the  surest 
road  to  eminence  in  the  profession  is  by  devoting 
themselves  chiefly  to  one  class  of  cases. 

The  changes  that  have  been  made  in  the  organiza 
tion  of  courts  have  been  very  great,  but  would  not  be 
particularly  interesting  to  the  general  reader,  even  if 
I  were  able  to  give  a  minute  history  of  them. 


SECTION  G.     Parochial  Schools. 

THE  Presbyterian  churches  in  Scotland  very  early 
adopted  the  practice,  not  only  of  supporting  a  minis 
ter,  but  a  schoolmaster,  to  instruct  their  children  in 
the  elements  of  useful  knowledge,  and  in  the  Bible 
and  Catechism.  These  were  called  parochial  schools. 
All  that  attended  them  were  instructed  in  the  doc 
trines  taught  in  the  Presbyterian  church. 


84  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  old  school  Presbyterian  Assembly  in  the  United 
States  have  undertaken  to  do  something  of  the  same 
kind.  They  recommend  to  every  church  session  to 
sustain  a  parochial  school,  and  to  the  large  and  wealthy 
churches  to  take  collections  to  assist  the  poorer  ones 
in  sustaining  such  schools.  The  schools  are  to  be 
under  the  care  of  the  session,  and  to  be  composed  of 
children  between  the  ages  of  five  and  twelve  years. 
The  assembly  has  a  board  of  education  and  a  corre 
sponding  secretary,  to  whom  the  reports  of  these 
schools  are  to  be  annually  transmitted.  The  appro 
priation  made  by  the  board  to  a  school  that  needs  as 
sistance  must  not  ordinarily  exceed  seventy-five  dol 
lars.  The  arrangements  for  the  organization  of  such 
schools  were  completed  at  the  meeting  of  the  assem 
bly,  in  1847.  In  1844,  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
consider  the  expediency  of  establishing  such  schools. 
No  report  of  their  doings  was  made  till  1846,  when 
Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander  presented  one  strongly  recom 
mending  them.  In  1847,  a  plan  wasteported  for  im 
mediate  action  by  the  board  of  education.  It  appears 
that  five  parochial  schools  were  established  in  New 
York  in  1846.  In  1848,  it  appeared  that  thirty-six 
parochial  schools  had  been  established  in  thirteen  dif 
ferent  states. 

The  chief  reason  for  this  movement  was,  that,  in 
schools  organized  under  the  auspices  of  the  state,  and 
receiving  state  patronage,  open  as  they  must  be  to 
children  of  different  denominations,  none  can  be  in 
structed  fully  in  that  system  of  doctrine  received  by 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  85 

the  Presbyterian  church.  The  great  objection  to  the 
parochial  system  is,  that  it  fosters  among  children  a 
sectarian  spirit,  encourages,  and  rather  obliges,  other 
sects  to  establish  similar  schools.  This  is  certainly 
the  most  effectual  method  that  can  be  taken  to  per 
petuate  error,  and  to  strengthen  the  prejudices  of 
children  against  those  of  other  denominations.  It  is 
maintained  by  the  friends  of  state  schools  that  it  is 
better  that,  inasmuch  as  all  the  children  are  to  live  to 
gether  under  the  same  government,  they  should  be 
educated  together,  and  learn  to  feel  an  interest  in 
each  other's  welfare.  The  Bible  is  read-  daily  in  state 
schools,  and  acknowledged  to  be  the  authentic  source 
of  religious  instruction.  All  the  truths  that  need  to 
be  inculcated  into  the  minds  of  children  can  be  freely 
taught ;  the  doctrines  peculiar  to  each  sect  can  be 
taught  by  the  parents  at  home,  or  by  the  teachers  of 
the  Sabbath  school. 

The  arguments  for  and  against  parochial  schools 
may  be  found  fry  examining  the  Reports  of  the  As 
sembly's  Board  of  Education,  an  article  in  the  New 
Englander  of  1848,  page  230,  and  the  12th  Report 
of  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education. 

It  is  not  likely  that  these  schools  will  ever  become 
very  numerous  in  the  United  States.  Men  will  not 
relinquish  their  right  to  the  benefits  of  public  funds, 
and  support  schools  of  this  description  for  the  sake  of 
the  doubtful  advantages  of  the  system. 
8 


86  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

SECTION  7.     Military  Academy  at  West  Point. 

THE  establishment  of  a  military  academy  in  our 
country  was  proposed,  in  1790,  by  General  Knox, 
then  secretary  of  war.  It  was  recommended  by  Gen 
eral  Washington,  in  his  message,  in  1793.  In  1794, 
a  corps  of  artillerists  and  engineers  was  established, 
having  eight  pupil  soldiers  attached  to  it.  In  1798, 
the  number  of  these  pupils,  or  cadets,  was  increased 
to  fifty,  having  four  teachers. 

In  1802,  these  young  men  were  collected  into  an 
academy  at  West  Point,  under  the  direction  of  General 
Jonathan  Williams.  The  whole  number  that  graduated 
previous  to  1812  was  seventy-one.  In  consequence  of 
the  want  of  a  know-ledge  of  military  tactics  exhibited  by 
our  officers  in  the  war  of  1812,  Congress  increased  the 
number  of  cadets,  so  that  one  might  be  nominated  by 
each  representative  in  Congress  from  his  district,  and 
ten  by  the  president  of  the  United  States.  The  whole 
number  of  students,  however,  seldom  exceeds  one 
hundred  and  fifty,  for  the  examinations  are  so  rigid  that 
great  numbers  are  sent  away  every  year,  not  being 
able  to  sustain  the  required  rank  in  respect  to  scholar 
ship.  The  institution  has  thirty-two  professors  and 
assistants. 

The  cadets  are  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  army,  hold 
a  rank  between  the  subaltern  and  commissioned  offi 
cers,  and  receive  pay  and  rations  which  amount  to 
twenty-eight  dollars  per  month,  with  which  they  pay 
their  expenses.  During  the  months  of  July  and  Au- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  87 

gust,  they  leave  the  barracks,  and  encamp  in  the  open 
field,  during  which  time  they  are  subject  to  the  dis 
cipline  of  an  army  in  time  of  war. 

The  institution  costs  the  United  States  from 
$125,000  to  $150,000  a  year. 

The  institution  is  furnished  with  the  most  perfect 
apparatus  that  can  be  obtained,  and  no  means  that  are 
needful  to  explain  the  science  of  war  are  wanting. 

The  money  expended  there,  annually,  would  sus 
tain  six  hundred  normal  schools,  which  would  fur 
nish  annually  30,000  accomplished  school  teachers. 
Which  will  benefit  our  country  most,  to  furnish  it 
annually  with  30,000  good  school  teachers,  or  sixty 
men  well  skilled  in  the  art  of  war  ? 


SECTION  8.     School  Books. 

NOT  much  attention  was  given  to  the  preparation 
of  school  books  in  this  country  till  after  the  revolu 
tionary  war.  We  were  previously  supplied  by  English 
authors.  The  feeling  soon  became  prevalent  that,  as 
our  institutions  were  different  from  those  of  England, 
we  needed  American  books  for  the  use  of  our  schools. 
Dilworth's  Spelling  Book  was  extensively  used  till 
after  the  revolution. 

In  1783,  Noah  Webster  published  a  Spelling  Book, 
Institutes  of  English  Grammar,  and  a  reading  book 
called  Webster's  Third  Part.  The  Spelling  Book 
has  had  a  wide  circulation,  and  "has  held  the  empire 


88  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

long."  Previous  to  1847,  24,000,000  copies  had 
been  published.  About  1825,  other  spelling  books 
began  to  be  published,  since  which  they  have  become 
too  numerous  to  be  registered  in  this  brief  sketch. 
In  1804,  there  were  thirteen  spelling  books  and  prim 
ers  ;  in  1832,  there  were  forty-five  in  the  United 
States. 

Geography  was  not  studied  in  common  schools 
very  generally  till  about  1815.  Rev.  Jedediah  Morse, 
D.  D.,  may  be  regarded  as  the  father  of  American 
geographers,  a  small  treatise  on  which  he  published 
in  1784.  Afterwards  he  published  a  larger  work,  an 
octavo  volume,  which,  in  the  early  part  of  this  cen 
tury,  swelled  to  two  large  octavos. 

The  small  geography,  previous  to  1820,  went 
through  twenty-one  editions.  It  contained  four  or 
five  small  maps.  In  1820,  it  was  re-written  by  his 
son,  and  adapted  to  the  wants  of  common  schools, 
and  was  accompanied  by  an  atlas.  Since  1840,  it 
has  been  published  in  a  quarto  form,  having  the  map 
of  each  country  on  the  page  describing  it. 

The  first  improvement  made  in  geographies  was 
the  publication  of  Cimimings's  School  Geography,  in 
1808.  It  was  accompanied  by  an  atlas,  on  the  plan 
of  Guy  and  Goldsmith,  whose  books  were  used  in 
England.  After  1820,  school  geographies  accompa 
nied  by  atlases  multiplied  fast,  and  the  cry  is,  "  Still 
they  come,"  with  improvements  in  modes  of  teach 
ing,  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  work.  This  im 
portant  branch  of  study,  I  have  said,  was  not  generally 


?•*      *   Or-TriB- 


THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

introduced  into  common  schools  till  about  1815. 
The  boundaries  of  the  states,  with  the  population 
and  capitals,  were  the  maximum  of  geographical 
knowledge  imparted  in  the  common  schools  to  those 
who  are  now  fifty  years  of  age. 

Near  the  close  of  the  last  century,  Nathaniel  D wight 
published  a  Geography  in  the  form  of  a  catechism, 
which  had  a  limited  circulation,  but  was  better 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  children  than  Morse's.  In 
1832,  there  were  in  the  schools  thirty-nine  different 
geographies. 

Webster,  I  have  said,  published  a  Grammar,  which 
I  believe  was  the  first  by  an  American.  English 
grammar  was  very  little  studied  during  the  last  cen 
tury,  when  we  depended  on  England  to  supply  the 
limited  demand  for  such  books.  Webster's  Grammar 
did  not  have  a  rapid  sale.  In  1807,  he  published  his 
Philosophical  Grammar,  which  was  far  in  advance  of 
the  age,  and  was  not  appreciated.  In  1795,  Rev. 
Caleb  Alexander,  of  Mendon,  Mass.,  who  died  in 
1828,  published  a  small  Grammar,  which  was  in  great 
demand  until  it  was  supplanted  by  Murray,  before 
1815.  I  am  inclined  to  think  it  did  much  to  awaken 
an  interest  in  the  study  of  the  English  language. 
English  grammars,  previous  to  this,  and  especially 
those  imported  from  England,  were  without  rules  of 
syntax.  Parsing  was  not  attended  to.  Alexander's 
Grammar  had  twenty-two  rules,  besides  five  in  a  sep 
arate  section  for  participles.  The  practical  exercise 
of  parsing  added  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  study. 


90  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

Lindley  Murray  was  a  native  of  Philadelphia ;  but 
finding  that  the  climate  of  England  was  more  favor 
able  to  his  feeble  health,  he  took  up  his  residence 
near  York,  and  supported  himself  till  his  death,  in 
1826,  by  compiling  school  books.  His  Grammars  had 
a  great  sale  in  this  country  previous  to  1830.  They 
were  supplanted  very  extensively  in  New  England 
by  Smith's ;  not  on  account  of  its  great  superiority, 
but  through  the  indefatigable  zeal  and  perseverance 
of  publishers'  agents,  who,  with  an  assortment  of 
school  books,  would  often  enter  a  school-house,  and 
exchange  with  the  classes,  giving  them  a  new  book 
for  an  old  one,  and  leave  a  supply  at  the  stores  to 
meet  the  demand  which  was  in  this  way  created. 

Since  then  the  number  of  English  grammars  has 
so  multiplied,  that  I  have  not  room  to  enroll  the  names 
of  all  their  authors. 

During  the  last  fifteen  years,  the  analysis  of  sen 
tences  has  become  more  and  more  prominent,  until  it 
is  beginning  to  throw  the  parsing  exercises  into  the 
shade.  This  ought  to  be  done ;  but  the  other  ought 
not  to  be  left  undone. 

From  a  catalogue*  of  all  the  grammars  in  use  in 
the  United  States,  in  1804,  it  appears  that  there  were 
sixteen.  Some  of  these,  however,  were  mere  apolo 
gies  for  a  treatise  on  that  subject.  In  1832,  there 
were  forty-eight,  which  number  has  since  very  much 
increased. 

In  1804,  there  were  fourteen  arithmetics  in  use  in 
the  United  States,  the  greatest  and  best  of  which 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  91 

was  Pike's.  In  1832,  there  were  fifty-three,  and  the 
one  which  has  had  the  greatest  and  best  influence 
upon  the  young  mind,  is  Colburn's  First  Lessons, 
published  in  1826.  The  mental  discipline,  and  the 
knowledge  of  numbers  which  a  child  gets  from  the 
study  of  Colburn,  are  very  great. 

In  an  edition  of  Adams's  Arithmetic,  published  in 
1815,  appeared  for  the  first  time  a  demonstration  of 
the  rule  for  extracting  the  square  and  cube  roots. 
Great  improvements  have  been  made  in  arithmetics 
within  a  few  years.  The  number  now  in  use  is 
about  fifty;  though  a  list  of  seventy-five  or  eighty 
may  easily  be  made  out.  As  new  ones  have  come 
into  use,  old  ones,  whose  authors  are  dead,  having  no 
one  to  look  after  them,  have  been  thrown  aside.  It 
may  be  said  of  the  authors  of  school  books,  very 
generally,  that  their  works  die  with  them. 

Of  reading  books  of  all  sorts  and  sizes,  there  were, 
in  1804,  twenty-eight  ;  in  1832,  there  were  one 
hundred  and  two,  since  which  the  number  has  been 
very  much  increased.  Probably,  Porter's  Rhetorical 
Reader  has  had  as  much  influence  as  any  one  in  form 
ing  a  taste  for  good  reading,  and  in  improving  the 
style  of  it. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  century  there  were 
no  books  on  natural  history,  for  schools,  no  astrono 
mies,  and  no  algebras.  There  is  no  lack  of  books  on 
these  subjects  now.  We  have  five  or  six  different 
works  on  physiology,  for  schools,  which  is  becoming 
a  useful  and  popular  study. 


92  THE   HALF   CENTUUY. 


SECTION  9.     Newspapers. 

DR.  FRANKLIN,  proposing  to  start  a  newspaper,  was 
urged  by  his  friends  to  desist  from  his  purpose,  be 
cause  there  were  already  two  or  three  papers  in  the 
country.  In  reply,  Franklin  said  that  more  papers 
would  make  more  readers.  He  was  right,  and  his 
friends  wrong.  If  they  had  lived  in  these  days,  they 
would,  no  doubt,  wonder  how  so  many  newspapers 
can  be  supported. 

The  mass  of  the  people,  a  century  ago,  had  very 
little  idea  of  the  power  of  the  press,  and  therefore 
made  comparatively  little  use  of  it  to  promote  their 
own  great  interests.  Kings  and  princes  had  an  in 
stinctive  dread  of  it.  They  regarded  it  as  an  animal 
that  would  do  great  mischief  if  it  should  have  its 
liberty.  They  determined  it  should  be  kept  in  a 
cage,  or  wear  a  chain  upon  its  neck. 

The  press,  in  most  countries  in  Europe,  has  been 
under  censorship,  or  had  its  liberty  restricted  by 
severe  laws,  until  the  revolutions  of  1848.  Very  few 
papers  have  been  published  in  Italy,  the  country  in 
which  they  had  their  birth,  and  those  very  small,  and 
filled  with  harmless  and  unimportant  matter. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  no  less  than 
1 129  prosecutions  were  issued  against  as  many  pub 
lishers  and  writers  for  the  public  press.  The  aggre 
gate  of  their  punishment  was  3,141  years'  imprison 
ment,  and  fines  amounting  to  $1,333,000. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  93 

Many  of  the  colonial  governors  of  the  United  States 
had  the  views  of  their  masters,  the  kings  and  princes 
of  Europe,  respecting  the  danger  of  multiplying 
weekly  gazettes.  William  Berkeley,  the  colonial 
governor  of  Virginia,  in  1675,  said,  "  I  thank  God  that 
we  have  no  free  schools  nor  printing  presses,  and  I 
hope  we  shall  not  have  any  for  a  hundred  years,  for 
learning  has  brought  disobedience,  and  heresy,  and 
sects  into  the  world  ;  and  printing  has  divulged  them, 
and  libelled  governments.  God  keep  us  from  both." 
Lord  Effingham,  who  was  governor  in  1683,  was 
ordered  expressly  "  to  allow  no  person  to  use  a  print 
ing  press  on  any  occasion  whatever."  No  paper  was 
printed  in  Virginia  till  1736,  and  free  schools  have 
not  yet  been  introduced,  except  for  the  poor. 

Those  days,  when  printing  presses  were  a  terror 
to  men  in  office,  and  to  their  personal  friends,  have 
gone  by,  and  now  they  scatter  their  leaves  as  plenti 
fully  as  the  trees  do  in  autumn. 

In  1800,  as  near  as  can  be  ascertained,  there  were 
in  the  United  States  200  newspapers  :  17  dailies,  7 
tri-weeklies,  30  bi-weeklies,  and  146  weeklies. 

In  1810,  there  were  359  ;  in  1830,  there  were  1,000  ; 
in  1840,  there  were  1,400  ;  and,  in  1850,  about  1,600. 

In  1800,  there  were  5  newspapers  in  Boston  ;  in 
1833,  there  were  43.  In  1800,  there  were  13  news 
papers  published  in  the  city  of  New  York ;  and  in 
1833,  there  were  65. 

In  1800,  the  number  of  newspapers  in  the  New 
England  States  was  65;  in  1842,  there  were  223. 


94  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  number  in  the  Middle  States,  in  1800,  was  74 ; 
in  1842,  it  was  513. 

The  states  which,  in  1842,  had  over  100  newspa 
pers,  were  the  following  :  New  York,  245 ;  Pennsyl 
vania,  187;  Ohio,  123. 

The  states  which  had,  at  the  above  date,  over  50 
papers,  were,  Massachusetts,  91 ;  Indiana,  73 ;  and 
Virginia,  51.  The  old  and  chivalrous  state  of  South 
Carolina  had  but  17. 

In  1850,  there  were  in  the  New  England  States 
371  newspapers  :  in  Maine,  53  ;  in  New  Hampshire, 
85  ;  in  Vermont,  39  ;  in  Massachusetts,  177  ;  in  Rhode 
Island,  21 ;  in  Connecticut,  46.  In  the  state  of  New 
York,  in  1850,  there  were  460  newspapers. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  the 
editor,  proprietor,  and  printer  of  a  paper  were  usually 
the  same  person.  The  matter  for  the  paper  was  most 
ly  selected,  and  there  was  no  expectation  of  or  call  for 
labored  editorials.  Many  of  the  papers  have  ever  been 
the  property  of  practical  printers,  whose  literary  educa 
tion  has  often  been  limited,  and  who  had  no  talent  to 
interest  the  public  by  the  profound  and  stirring  pro 
ductions  of  their  own  pens.  But  there  is  an  increased 
demand  for  such  articles,  and  consequently  many  of 
our  newspapers  have-  had  a  brief  existence.  Very 
few  have  lived  through  the  whole  ovf  the  last  half 
century. 

Within  twenty-five  years,  many  of  our  newspapers 
have  employed  one,  and  sometimes  two,  well-educated 
men,  who  are  able  to  discuss  important  questions, 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  95 

and  to  lead  their  readers  to  form  sounder  views  than 
they  otherwise  would.  This  class  of  papers  has  a 
large  circulation,  and  controls  very  much  the  senti 
ments  promulgated  in  village  papers,  whose  circula 
tion  is  too  small  to  pay  an  editor  for  his  services. 

Religious  Newspapers.  —  By  a  religious  newspaper, 
I  mean  one  that  has  the  form  of  ordinary  newspa 
pers  containing  secular  news,  marriages,  deaths,  and 
advertisements  ;  but  the  greater  part  of  which  is  filled 
with  original  or  selected  articles  on  various  religious 
subjects.  The  first  of  the  kind  ever  published  was 
projected  in  Boston  in  1815  ;  it  was  called  the  Boston 
Recorder :  the  first  number  of  it  appeared  in  January, 
1816,  superintended  and  published  by  Nathaniel  Wil 
lis.  Mr.  Sidney  E.  Morse  edited  the  paper  for  a  year 
or  two,  and  in  1849,  claimed  to  be  the  originator  of 
this  class  of  papers.  In  June,  1849,  the  Boston  Re 
corder  was  united  with  the  New  England  Puritan, 
a  paper  commenced  by  Rev.  Parsons  Cook,  D.  D., 
of  Lynn,  in  1840,  and  called  the  Puritan  Recorder. 
There  were  three  or  four  weekly  periodicals  in  an 
octavo  or  quarto  form,  that  were  published  somewhat 
earlier  than  the  Boston  Recorder.  They  were  more 
like  the  monthly  periodicals  of  the  present  day,  and 
had  not  the  essential  characteristics  of  a  weekly  news 
paper.  Of  this  kind  was  the  Religious  Remem 
brancer,  which  was  commenced  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1813,  and  was  continued  through  ten  years. 

The  second  religious  newspaper  was  the  Religious 
Intelligencer,  published  at  New  Haven.  It  was  com- 


96  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

menced  in  June,  1816,  and  was  merged  in  another 
paper  about  1832. 

The  New  York  Observer  was  commenced  in  Janu 
ary,  1823,  by  Sidney  E.  Morse.  It  was  designed  to 
be  somewhat  neutral  in  regard  to  sects,  and  conserva 
tive  in  its  influence. 

The  New  York  Evangelist  was  commenced  in 
1830,  and  was  the  advocate  of  new  measures  and 
new  divinity.  It  entered  warmly  into  all  the  ex 
citing  subjects  of  moral  reformation.  It  has  changed 
editors  several  times,  and  has  become  at  length  much 
more  conservative  than  it  was  at  first,  and  is  now  the 
organ  of  the  new  school  Presbyterians.  This  class 
of  papers  became  very  popular,  and,  as  early  as  1825, 
almost  every  religious  sect  had  one  or  more  papers 
devoted  to  its  own  interests.  In  1832,  there  were  18 
religious  papers  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  It  is  be 
lieved  there  is  now  more  than  125  such  papers  in  the 
United  States.  They  have  exerted  a  good  influence 
over  secular  papers,  the  publishers  of  which  find  it  for 
their  interest  to  insert  items  of  religious  intelligence, 
and  to  publish  occasionally  original  articles  on  moral 
and  religious  subjects. 

The  success  of  religious  newspapers  suggested  the 
idea  of  publishing  other  papers  devoted  to  the  advo 
cacy  of  one  important  topic  ;  hence  there  have  sprung 
up,  within  the  last  twenty-five  years,  a  countless 
number  of  temperance,  anti-slavery,  agricultural,  anti- 
masonic,  educational,  and  scientific  papers.  Every 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  97 

great  interest  has  its  paper,  through  which  it  throws 
out  its  influence  upon  public  sentiment. 

A  new  mode  of  conducting  religious  papers  has 
been  recently  adopted.  A  company  furnish  the  capi 
tal,  and  print  and  publish  such  matter  as  the  editors 
furnish.  It  is  too  often  the  case  that  when  the  editor 
is  the  owner  of  the  paper,  he  is  strongly  tempted  to 
withhold  some  truths,  lest  he  should  offend  some  of 
his  subscribers,  and  to  publish  some  things  that  ought 
not  to  be  published,  with  the  hope  of  increasing  his 
list  of  subscribers.  If  the  editors  are  placed  beyond 
the  reach  of  this  temptation,  and  the  publishers  are 
bound  to  insert  such  articles  as,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  editors,  ought  to  be  published,  it  makes  the  press 
more  free  and  independent. 

The  Independent,  a  Congregational  paper,  com 
menced  in  New  York  the  latter  part  of  1848,  is  con 
ducted  in  this  manner.  The  Inquirer,  a  Unitarian 
paper  in  Ne\v  York,  was  placed  on  a  similar  founda 
tion  in  1849,  and  the  Congregationalist  was  started  in 
Boston,  in  May,  1849,  on  the  same  plan.  Time  will 
determine  whether  a  paper  can  be  sustained  unless 
the  editors  have  an  interest  in  the  subscription  list. 

Steam  power  was  first  applied  to  printing  by  Mr. 
Walter,  principal  owner  of  the  London  Times,  in  1814. 
He  made  his  first  experiment  November  29,  to  which 
the  pressmen  in  the  office  were  violently  opposed. 
They  threatened  destruction  to  any  one  whose  inven 
tions  should  interfere  with  their  employment.  He 
9 


98  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

directed  his  men  to  wait  that  morning  until  six  o'clock 
for  news  from  the  continent,  and  in  the  mean  time  he 
put  his  steam  press  in  motion,  and  at  six,  called  the 
pressmen,  and  told  them  the  paper  was  printed ;  that 
if  they  attempted  any  violence,  he  had  a  force  ready 
to  suppress  it ;  but  if  they  were  peaceable,  their 
wages  should  be  continued  to  each  of  them  till  they 
could  find  employment  elsewhere. 

The  printing  of  papers  and  books  in  the  large 
cities  in  Europe  and  this  country  is  done  by  steam 
presses.  The  same  press  often  prints  several  papers, 
thus  rendering  it  unnecessary  that  every  publisher  of 
a  paper  should  have  a  press  of  his  own. 


SECTION  10.     Periodical  Journals. 

VERY  few  monthly  journals  were  published  in  this 
country  before  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century.  They  had  few  subscribers,  and  seldom 
lived  to  be  more  than  two  years  old.  Boston,  which 
claims  to  be  the  Athens  of  America,  was  unable  to 
sustain  an  able  monthly.  In  1800.  a  Philadelphia 
editor  said,  "  Literary  projects  have  almost  proved 
abortive  in  Boston.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
to  establish  periodicals  in  that  small  town  ;  but  mis 
cellaneous  readers  ask  in  vain  for  a  magazine,  or 
review,  or  literary  journal,  in  the  capital  of  New 
England."  In  1810,  according  to  Isaiah  Thomas, 
who  is  good  authority  on  this  subject,  there  were 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  99 

only  twenty-six  of  this  class  of  journals  published 
in  the  United  States.  In  1835,  there  were  one  him- 
hundred  and  forty,  and  now  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy-five.  Some  of  them  are  very  substantial, 
and  worth  preserving,  while  many  of  them  are  light 
and  trashy,  intended  merely  to  amuse  the  volatile 
and  gay. 

The  Connecticut  Evangelical  Magazine,  a  valuable 
religious  periodical,  was  commenced  in  1800,  at  Hart 
ford,  and  continued  about  ten  years.  The  Panoplist, 
another  able  religious  periodical,  was  commenced  in 
Boston,  in  1805,  which,  in  1820,  became  the  Mis 
sionary  Herald,  and  is  continued  at  the  present  time. 
The  Christian  Disciple,  a  Unitarian  monthly,  was 
commenced  in  1813.  It  is  now  called  the  Christian 
Examiner,  and  is  a  well-conducted  journal.  The 
North  American  Review  was  commenced  at  Cam 
bridge,  in  1815,  and  is  an  honor  to  the  country. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  Silliman's  Journal,  a 
learned,  scientific  quarterly,  commenced  at  New 
Haven,  in  1817.  The  Christian  Spectator  was  first 
published  in  1819,  and  continued  twenty  years,  when 
it  was  merged  in  the  American  Biblical  Repository, 
published  at  New  York,  which  was  the  union  of  the 
Biblical  Repository,  commenced  at  Andover,  in  1831, 
and  the  Quarterly  Observer,  commenced  at  Boston,  in 
1833.  The  American  Biblical  Repository  still  exists. 
The  New  Englander  was  commenced  at  New  Haven, 
in  1843,  and  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  at  Andover,  in 
1844.  The  Biblical  Repertory,  an  able  and  learned 


100  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

quarterly,  has  been  published  at  Princeton,  New 
Jersey,  for  several  years,  the  Methodist  Quarterly 
Review  at  New  York,  and  the  Baptist  Review  at 
Boston. 

I  do  not  propose  to  give  the  names,  history,  and 
character  of  all  the  periodicals  published  in  our 
country.  Besides  those  I  have  mentioned,  there  are 
several  law  and  medical  journals,  and  some  devoted 
to  natural  history.  The  best  European  journals  are 
republished  in  this  country,  and  several  eclectics, 
which  are  filled  with  selections  from  those  published 
in  Europe. 

The  above  succinct  statement  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  there  has  been,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  a 
remarkable  increase  in  the  demand  for  learned  and 
able  periodicals  and  reviews.  It  shows  that  there 
has  been  great  intellectual  progress  ;  that  the  number 
of  able  writers  and  men  of  fine  literary  and  scientific 
attainments  has  greatly  increased. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  are  emphatically 
a  reading  people  ;  and  there  being  no  censorship  of 
the  press,  its  issues  are  suited  to  the  taste  of  the 
people.  One  may  judge,  therefore,  of  the  taste  of 
the  people,  by  looking  at  the  character  of  the  books 
and  periodicals  that  are  published  from  month  to 
month,  to  meet  the  popular -.demand.  While  we  are 
gratified  to  find  so  many  that  are  solid  and  substan 
tial,  it  is  painful  to  know  that  periodicals,  filled  with 
useless  matter  and  tales  of  fiction,  have  the  largest 
subscription  lists.  Great  is  the  number  of  those  that 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  101 

contain  no  useful  information,  and  have  no  good 
moral  tendency,  but,  on  the  contrary,  cultivate  a 
taste  for  momentary  gratification,  and  often  convey 
the  seductive  poison  of  error  and  voluptuousness. 

Within  a  few  years,  there  have  been  many  presses 
constantly  employed  in  publishing  tales  and  novels, 
in  the  form  of  pamphlets,  in  the  cheapest  style  possi 
ble,  and  scattering  them  abroad  as  profusely  as  the 
leaves  of  autumn.  They  have  been  styled  "  the 
yellow-covered  literature."  Every  boy  and  girl  that 
can  buy  an  orange,  can  supply  themselves  with  the 
last  novel,  at  about  the  same  price. 
9* 


102  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER   III. 

CHARITABLE  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS. 


SECTION  1.     Sabbath  Schools. 

ROBERT  RAIKES,  of  Gloucester,  England,  has  the 
honor  of  being  denominated  the  founder  of  Sabbath 
schools.  He  commenced  one  in  his  native  town,  in 
1781.  His  first  and  chief  object  was  to  collect  poor 
children,  and  teach  them  to  read  and  write,  connect 
ing  therewith  moral  and  religious  instruction.  Raikes 
died  in  1811,  aged  seventy-six. 

A  similar  school  was  gathered  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1.791,  by  Bishop  White,  Doctors  Rush  and  Say,  and 
Matthew  Carey.  In'the  early  part  of  this  century,  Sab 
bath-schools  ^began  to  'be  organized  in  many  cities  and 
to wfcs  irf  th'e~  United  States.  It  is  impossible  to  tell 
which  was  first,  though  I  have  seen  no  well-authenti 
cated  account  of  any  earlier  than  the  one  in  Beverly, 
Mass.,  in  1810.  Two  young  ladies  gathered  a  school, 
mostly  of  poor  children,  whom  they  clothed,  instructed 
on  the  Sabbath,  and  took  with  them  to  church.  In 
1812,  the  General  Association  of  Massachusetts,  in  their 
narrative  of  the  state  of  religion,  noticed  with  appro 
bation  the  establishment  of  a  "  Sabbath  school  in 
Beverly,  in  which  poor,  neglected  children  were  taught 
to  fear  the  name  of  the  Lord  and  to  sanctify  his  day." 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  i(XJ 

The  inference  is,  that  it  was  the  only  one  in  the  state 
known  to  that  body.  Soon  after  this,  it  is  known 
there  was  one  at  Newburyport,  and  another  at  Charles- 
town.  At  first  they  were  imitations  of  the  schools 
established  by  Raikes,  and  were  composed  of  the 
children  of  the  poor.  It  was  soon  found  that  the 
children  of  the  rich  would  be  benefited  by  them, 
and  they  were  opened  for  children  and  youth  gen 
erally. 

The  schools  being  scattered,  it  was  found  difficult 
to  obtain  suitable  books  for  the  children.  The  exer 
cises  consisted  in  repeating  verses  of  Scripture  and 
hymns  previously  committed.  Books  were  given  as 
rewards  about  once  a  quarter. 

The  New  York  Sabbath  School  Union  was  formed 
in  1817  :  during  the  same  year,  Sabbath  school  unions 
were  formed  in  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Boston,  and 
Albany.  An  influence  went  forth  from  these  cities  into 
the  country,  and,  previous  to  1820,  Sabbath  schools 
existed  in  very  many  towns.  They  were  continued, 
at  first,  in  country  towns  especially,  only  through  the 
warm  season  of  the  year. 

In  1824,  the  Philadelphia  Union,  which  had  pub 
lished  some  books  for  its  own  use,  enlarged  itself  into 
the  American  Sunday  School  Union,  and  began 
to  publish  question  books,  and  those  suitable  for  libra 
ries.  This  Union,  from  the  beginning,  was  composed 
of  those  who  belonged  to  the  several  evangelical  de 
nominations,  and  by  their  constitution  are  obliged  to 
expunge  from  the  books  they  publish  all  doctrinal 


104  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

subjects,  except  those  which  they  hold  in  common  ; 
hence  the  name  Union.  The  American  Union  com 
menced,  in  1824,  a  monthly  periodical,  called  the  Sun 
day  School  Magazine  ;  in  1831,  the  Magazine  became 
a  quarterly,  and  a  weekly  paper  was  issued,  called  the 
Sunday  School  Journal.  The  paper  is  still  pub 
lished,  though  reduced  in  size.  This  society  has, 
from  the  beginning,  employed  agents  to  visit  churches 
and  congregations,  to  collect  funds  to  enable  them 
to  publish  books,  and  establish  schools  in  destitute 
portions  of  the  country.  About  1828,  the  society 
began  its  labors  in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
has  done  much  to  awaken  an  interest  in  new  settle 
ments  in  the  religious  education  of  the  young.  Its 
annual  receipts,  in  contributions,  are  between  $30,000 
and  $40,000.  It  has  four  depositories  —  in  Phila 
delphia,  New  York,  Boston,  and  Louisville.  F.  W. 
Porter  is  corresponding  secretary,  and  F.  A.  Packard, 
Esq.,  editor  of  its  publications. 

The  total  receipts  of  the  year  ending  May,  1850, 
from  all  sources,  were  $167,652;  the  indebtedness  of 
the  society  is  $65,012.  It  employed  last  year  one 
hundred  and  three  colporteurs  and  agents,  in  twenty- 
five  states  and  territories.  In  1826,  the  Union  had 
published  twenty-one  books  suitable  for  Sabbath 
school  libraries ;  since  then,  seven  hundred. 

The  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School  Union  was  or 
ganized  in  1825.  It  embraced  all  the  evangelical  de 
nominations  in  the  state,  but  the  Congregational  and 
Baptist  churches  were  most  efficient.  It  was  auxil- 


THE  HALF  CENTUKY.  105 

iary  to  the  American  Union.  In  1828,  it  employed  a 
secretary  and  general  agent,  and  became  a  publishing 
society.  It  issued  a  monthly  periodical,  called  the 
Sabbath  School  Treasury.  Rev.  Artemas  Billiard, 
now  Dr.  Bullard,  of  St.  Louis,  was  secretary  till 
1832,  when  he  resigned,  and  the  union  was  dissolved. 
Two  denominational  societies  were  immediately  or 
ganized, — :the  Massachusetts  and  the  New  England 
Sabbath  school  societies,  —  the  first  a  Congregational, 
the  second  a  Baptist  society.  It  was  thought  the 
interests  of  the  cause  would  be  promoted  by  a  divis 
ion  of  labor.  The  separation  was  entirely  harmo 
nious,  though  the  Baptists  were  suspicious  that  their 
presence  was  no  longer  desired. 

Rev.  Christopher  Marsh  was  secretary  and  general 
agent  of  the  Massachusetts  society  the  first  year, 
and  was  succeeded  in  April,  1832,  by  Rev.  Asa  Bul 
lard,  who  has  filled  the  place  from  that  time  to  the 
present. 

In  May,  1839,  the  Massachusetts  society  ceased  to 
be  auxiliary  to  the  American  Union.  It  has  ever 
since  acted  as  an  independent  society.  It  of  course 
interferes  with  the  American  Union.  It  prevents  it 
from  collecting  as  much  money  in  the  New  England 
states  as  it  otherwise  would,  and  diminishes  its  sales 
of  books. 

The  Massachusetts  society  sustains  itself  by 
charging  a  small  profit  on  the  books  it  publishes. 
The  American  Union  sells  its  books  at  what  it  costs 
to  manufacture  them,  and  its  officers  and  agents  are 
supported  by  contributions  from  churches. 


106  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Mr.  C.  C.  Dean  took  the  charge  of  the  depository 
of  the  Massachusetts  society  in  1828,  and  has  con 
tinued  there  to  the  present  time.  This  society 
receives  money  that  is  sent  to  it  by  churches,  Sab 
bath  schools,  or  individuals,  and  transmits  the  full 
amount  thereof  in  books  for  the  use  of  Sabbath 
schools  in  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi.  Its  sales 
amount  to  about  $20,000  annually,  and  its  receipts, 
to  be  expended  in  libraries  for  the  west,  are  between 
three  and  four  thousand  dollars.  The  whole  num 
ber  of  the  society's  publications  in  May,  1850,  were 
nine  hundred  and  eighty-six,  of  which  five  hundred 
and  seventy-two  are  bound  volumes. 

The  New  England  society  publishes  books  for  the 
Sabbath  schools  of  the  Baptist  denomination. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  church  has  a  thoroughly 
organized  system  of  Sabbath  schools.  The  Meth 
odist  Book  Concern  at  New  York  provides  books  for 
libraries,  and  the  churches  contribute  between  three 
and  four  thousand  dollars  annually  for  supplying 
schools  with  libraries  that  are  unable  to  purchase  for 
themselves. 

Sabbath  schools  are  sustained  by  the  enterprise, 
sacrifice,  and  charities  of  men  high  in  rank.  Chief 
Justice  Marshall  and  Judge  Washington  were  both 
of  them  the  friends  and  patrons  of  Sabbath  schools. 
The  late  President  Harrison,  for  several  years,  taught 
a  class  in  a  Sabbath  school,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ohio,  and  continued  to  do  so  until  the  Sabbath  pre 
vious  to  his  leaving  home  to  assume  the  responsi- 


THE  HALF   CENTURY.  107 

bilities  of  the  high  office  to  which  he  was  called  by 
the  voice  of  the  people.  Hon.  Samuel  Hubbard,  of 
Boston,  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  was 
a  Sabbath  school  teacher.  Governors  of  states  and 
their  wives,  members  of  Congress,  and  professors  in 
colleges,  have  not  deemed  it  beneath  them  to  teach 
children  lessons  of  piety. 

The  instruction  that  has  been  communicated  in 
this  way,  during  the  last  half  century,  has  already 
produced  much  good  fruit.  When  many  are  run 
ning  to  and  fro,  knowledge  is  increased. 


SECTION  2.     Institutions  for  Deaf  Mutes. 

THE  late  Mason  Cogswell,  M.  D..  a  pious  physician, 
of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  had  a  daughter  who  was 
deaf  and  dumb.  It  awakened  in  him  an  interest  in 
this  unfortunate  class  of  persons.  In  1814,  he  em 
ployed  the  Rev.  Thomas  Gallaudet,  a  young  clergy 
man,  who  had  just  left  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  to  instruct  his  daughter.  The  success  of 
the  experiment  was  such  that  Dr.  C.  and  some  other 
gentlemen  in  that  city  were  led  to  undertake  the 
establishment  of  an  institution  for  the  benefit  of  deaf 
mutes. 

In  the  spring  of  1815,  they  sent  Mr.  Gallaudet  to 
Europe,  to  visit  the  institutions  there  established,  and 
to  qualify  himself  for  the  superintendence  of  the  one 
they  had  in  contemplation.  He  visited  several,  but 


108  THE  HALF   CENTURY 

spent  more  time  in  Paris  than  any  where  else,  at  the 
royal  institution  under  the  care  of  the  Abbe  Sicard. 

He  returned  in  1816,  bringing  with  him  Mr.  Lau 
rence  Le  Clerc,  from  Paris,  to  be  his  assistant.  An 
act  of  incorporation  was  obtained  from  the  legislature, 
a  liberal  sum  was  contributed  in  Hartford  for  the 
erection  of  suitable  buildings,  and  a  township  of  land 
in  Alabama  was  given  by  Congress  towards  endow 
ing  the  institution. 

It  was  opened  April  15,  1817,  and  was  called  the 
American  Asylum.  It  was  the  first  of  the  kind  in 
America. 

The  system  of  instruction  introduced  by  Mr.  Gal- 
laudet  differed  somewhat  from  the  European  systems, 
and  has  been  called,  by  way  of  distinction,  the 
American  system,  the  peculiar  excellences  of  which 
have  been  since  adopted  in  Europe.  He  introduced 
the  fundamental  principle  of  Heiniche,  "  first  ideas, 
then  words,"  and  that  "  the  natural  language  of  signs 
must  be  elevated  to  as  high  a  degree  of  excellence  as 
possible,  in  order  to  serve  as  a  medium,  through 
which  to  impart  clear  ideas."  He  introduced  another 
principle,  which  was  original  with  himself,  that  the 
pupil  must  be  led  to  reflect  on  what  is  passing  in  his 
own  mind,  in  order  to  acquire  mental  and  spiritual 
ideas,  preparatory  to  understanding  written  language 
and  religious  truths.  He  also  introduced  the  practice 
of  praying  with  his  pupils,  and  of  conducting  this 
devotional  exercise  by  natural  signs. 

At   the  end   of  the  first   year,  there  were    thirty 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  109 

pupils.  It  soon  became  the  asylum  for  all  the  New 
England  States;  the  legislatures  of  all,  except  Rhode 
Island,  make  appropriations  annually  for  educating 
their  deaf  mutes  at  Hartford.  In  May,  1829,  there 
were  143  pupils  in  the  asylum.  Massachusetts  ap 
propriated  for  its  pupils  $6,500.  In  1834,  there 
were  50  pupils  from  Massachusetts,  25  from  Con 
necticut,  25  from  Yermont,  15  from  New  Hampshire, 
and  as  many  from  Maine.  In  1842,  there  were  134 
from  12  different  states;  and,  in  1850,  there  were 
210  from  8  different  states. 

Mr.  Gallaudet  resigned  his  place  as  principal  in 
1831,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  Lewis  Weld,  who 
is  still  at  the  head  of  the  institution.  The  board  of 
directors,  on  accepting  the  resignation  of  Mr.  G.,  said, 
"  The  cause  of  humanity  is  primarily  indebted  to 
him  for  the  introduction  of  deaf  mute  instruction  into 
the  United  States,  and  for  the  spread  of  the  infor 
mation  necessary  for  prosecuting  it  successfully  in 
public  institutions,  of  which  all  in  the  country  are 
experiencing  the  benefits." 

The  second  institution  of  the  kind  was  established 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  It  was  incorporated  in 
April,  1818,  and  went  into  operation  in  May  of 
that  year,  under  the  superintendence  of  Rev.  A.  C. 
Stansbury.  At  the  end  of  the  first  term,  it  had 
18  pupils.  It  did  riot  at  first  adopt  the  American 
system  of  instruction,  probably  for  the  want  of  an  ex 
perienced  teacher.  Mr.  Harvey  Peet,  who  has  been 
at  the  head  of  it  for  many  years,  was  for  some  time  a 
10 


110  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

teacher  in  the  asylum  at  Hartford,  and  has  introduced 
the  system  he  learned  there.  In  1834,  there  were 
124  pupils,  90  of  whom  were  supported  by  the  state 
of  New  York.  In  1850,  there  were  222,  of  whom 
127  were  males  and  95  females  ;  160  were  supported 
by  the  state.  In  1848,  the  state  paid  for  this  object 
$21,000. 

There  is  a  similar  institution  at  Canajoharie,  New 
York,  which  went  into  operation  prior  to  1830,  and 
had,  in  1834,  only  34  pupils. 

The  Pennsylvania  institution,  at  Philadelphia,  was 
the  third  in  point  of  time;  it  was  commenced  in 
1820.  In  1834,  it  had  80  pupils,  50  of  whom  were 
supported  by  that  state,  20  by  Maryland,  and  10  by 
New  Jersey. 

Asylums  for  deaf  mutes  were  established  at  Colum 
bus,  Ohio,  and  at  Danville,  Kentucky,  previous  to 
1830. 

There  are  now  eleven  institutions  for  the  instruc 
tion  of  this  unfortunate  class  of  people  in  the  United 
States,  which  contain  1,000  pupils.  They  remain, 
if  the  support  is  adequate,  five  years,  and  acquire,  in 
that  time,  a  good  business  education,  besides  learning 
some  art  or  trade,  by  which  they  may  be  able  to 
support  themselves.  Nearly  all  the  older  states  make 
provision  for  the  education  of  their  deaf  mutes. 
There  were,  in  1840,  in  the  United  States,  7,900 
deaf  and  dumb  ;  there  may  now  be  10.000. 

The  most  remarkable  pupil  in  any  of  these  asylums 
is  Julia  Brace,  born  in  Hartford,  Connecticut,  June 


THE  HALF  CENTUEY.  Ill 

13,  1807.  When  four  years  old,  she  had  the  typhus 
fever,  and  on  the  sixth  day  lost  her  sight  and  hearing, 
which  she  has  never  recovered.  She  continued  to 
talk  for  a  while,  and  did  riot  lose  her  speech  entirely 
for  a  year.  The  word  she  continued  to  articulate 
longer  than  any  other  was  that  of  mother.  She  is 
still  a  resident  at  the  asylum,  where  she  has  been 
ever  since  1821.  When  nine  years  old,  she  learned 
to  sew,  and  soon  after  to  knit.  She  is.  supported,  in 
part,  by  the  contributions  of  visitors,  to  whom  she 
is  ever  an  object  of  interest,  and  in  part  by  the  avails 
of  her  own  labor. 

There  is  published,  at  Hartford,  the  American 
Annals  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb.  It  is  issued  in  quar 
terly  numbers  of  sixty-four  pages  each,  and  was 
commenced  in  October,  1847. 

In  German  institutions,  the  deaf  mutes  are  taught 
to  articulate  sounds.  It  is  not  much  attended  to  in 
this  country.  Their  speaking  is  harsh,  unnatural, 
and  monotonous.  "  Destitute  of  modulation  and 
accent,  it  more  nearly  resembles  what  we  should 
conceive  a  speaking  machine  might  utter,  than  the 
usual  speech  of  mankind." 


SECTION  3.     Instruction  of  the  Blind. 

THE  New  England  Institution  for  the  Blind  was 
incorporated  by  the  Massachusetts  legislature  in  1829. 
Its  location  was  Boston,  and  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe  was 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


selected  as  teacher  and  superintendent.  He  was  sent 
to  Europe  to  visit  the  institutions  for  the  blind  in 
that  country,  and  to  qualify  himself  for  the  work  in 
which  he  was  to  engage.  A  course  of  instruction 
was  commenced  in  1832.  At  the  beginning  of 
1833,  the  patrons  of  this  enterprise  had  expended 
several  hundred  dollars  more  than  they  had  received 
in  preparing  their  teachers,  and  making  a  beginning 
on  a  small  scale.  In  February  of  that  year,  Thomas 
H.  Perkins,  Esq.,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Boston,  pre 
sented  to  the  Board  of  Directors  his  family  mansion, 
and  the  ample  ground  about  it,  valued  at  $58,000,  on 
condition  that  $50,000  more  should  be  raised  before 
the  expiration  of  May.  The  sum  was  raised,  and 
the  institution  was  at  once  placed  on  a  permanent 
basis.  This  is  the  first  institution  that  was  estab 
lished  in  America  for  the  benefit  of  the  blind.  It 
was  after  this  called  the  "  Perkins  Institution."  In 
1839,  the  house  and  lands  were  advantageously 
exchanged  for  the  Mount  Washington  House,  at 
South  Boston,  which  is  a  much  better  location,  and 
there  it  is  now  permanently  fixed.  According  to  the 
census  of  1830,  there  were  then  5,444  blind  persons 
in  the  United  States,  777  of  whom  were  in  New 
England. 

In  1834,  there  were  in  this  asylum  24  pupils  ;  and 
in  1835,  there  were  42,  of  whom  33  were  supported 
by  public  funds,  19  by  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  6 
by  Maine,  5  by  New  Hampshire,  and  1  by  Vermont. 
In  1839,  there  were  60  pupils. 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  113 

In  1834,  the  Institution  was  presented  with  a  font 
of  types,  adapted  to  printing,  with  raised  characters^ 
They  were  given  by  citizens  of  New  Bedford  and 
Nan  tucket.  A  strong  press  was  manufactured  to  do 
the  printing  of  the  Institution.  Previous  to  1839, 
they  had  printed,  in  raised  letters,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  the  Psalms,  a  Reading  Book,  Murray's 
Grammar,  and  Baxter's  Call.  The  latter  was  done 
at  the  expense  of  the  Tract  Society. 

In  1841,  the  American  Bible  Society,  having  re 
ceived  some  generous  contributions  for  that  object, 
stereotyped  the  New  Testament  and  Psalms  in  raised 
letters,  and  in  1842,  the  whole  Bible,  at  an  expense 
of  §10,000.  The  society  now  prints  the  whole 
Bible  for  the  blind,  in  eight  large  volumes,  at  twenty 
dollars  a  set. 

Hon.  Horace  Mann  says,  "  I  have  seen  no  institu 
tion  for  the  blind,  in  Europe,  equal  to  that  under  the 
care  of  Dr.  Howe,  at  South  Boston,  nor  but  one,  in 
deed,  (at  Amsterdam,)  worthy  to  be  compared  with 
it.  In  many  of  them,  pupils  are  never  taught  to 
read,  and  in  others  they  learn  only  some  mechanical 
employment." 

A  similar  institution  was  organized  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  in  1833.  Permanent  and  suitable  build 
ings  were  completed  in  1843.  In  1842,  this  institu 
tion  had  64  pupils,  60  of  whom  were  supported  by 
the  state.  In  January,  1850,  there  were  135  pupils, 
95  of  whom  were  supported  by  the  state,  at  an 
expense  of  $28,000. 
10*= 


114  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  third  institution  for  the  blind  was  established 
in  Philadelphia.  The  whole  number  in  the  United 
States  is  not  known. 

The  most  remarkable  pupil  in  any  of  the  asylums 
of  the  blind  is  Laura  Bridgman,  who,  like  Julia 
Brace,  is  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind ;  and,  indeed,  no 
sense  is  perfect,  except  that  of  touch ;  and  yet  she  is 
made  the  recipient  of  knowledge. 

Laura  was  born  in  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  De 
cember  21,  1829.  She  was  so  puny  and  feeble  until 
she  was  a  year  and  a  half  old,  that  her  parents  hardly 
expected  to  raise  her.  When  two  years  old,  she  had 
a  fit  of  sickness,  in  which  she  lost  both  her  sight  and 
hearing,  and  by  which  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell 
were  much  impaired.  It  was  not  till  she  was  four 
years  old,  that  she  was  able  to  enter  upon  the  appren 
ticeship  of  life  and  the  world.  Her  propensity  to 
imitate  was  very  strong,  and  she  learned  much  of 
things  about  her.  October  4,  1837,  she  was  placed 
under  the  instruction  of  Dr.  Howe,  in  the  Perkins 
asylum,  where  she  has  continued  ever  since.  See 
Reports  of  the  Institution,  and  vols.  iii.  and  iv.  of  the 
Common  School  Journal. 


SECTION  4      Lunatic  Asylums,  or  Hospitals  for  the 
Insane. 

THE  provision  that  has  been  made  within  a  few 
years,  and  which  is  increasing  from  year  to  year,  for 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  115 

the  cure  or  comfort  of  the  insane,  is  one  of  the  dis 
tinguished  features  of  the  age.  What  can  be  more 
cheering  to  a  lover  of  his  race  than  to  behold  states 
vying,  as  it  were,  with  each  other,  to  see  which  will 
do  most  for  the  benefit  of  this  unfortunate  class  of 
persons,  and  to  see  them  offering  these  advantages  to 
the  insane  poor,  without  money  and  without  price  ? 
How  striking  the  contrast  between  these  monuments 
of  modern,  and  those  of  ancient  times  !  The  idea 
of  a  hospital  for  the  insane  was  too  vast  a  conception 
for  the  wise  men  of  Greece  or  Rome.  Nothing  like 
it  ever  existed  in  pagan  lands,  nor  in  countries 
where  a  corrupt  Christianity  prevails,  or  the  religion 
of  the  false  prophet  is  predominant;  nor,  indeed,  has 
any  thing  like  it  been  seen  in  this  country  till  within 
the  last  thirty  years.  Formerly,  the  insane  were  per 
mitted  to  ramble  about,  the  sport  and  jest  of  the  rude 
and  unfeeling,  and  sometimes  a  terror  to  women  and 
children.  The  more  violent  were  chained  in  a  back 
room  without  furniture,  without  comforts,  and  some 
times  without  a  fire  even  in  the  midst  of  winter  ; 
some  of  them  were  confined  in  jails  surrounded  with 
great  wretchedness.  The  sufferings  inflicted  upon 
them  were  as  great  as  those  inflicted  upon  persons 
guilty  of  crimes  against  the  state. 

How  changed  the  scene  !  Now  they  are  provided 
with  neat  rooms  in  large  and  elegant  mansions,  with 
all  the  comforts  that  can  be  desired.  The  members 
of  legislatures  have  done  to  the  poor  lunatic  as  they 
would  that  others  should  do  for  them  under  similar 
circumstances. 


116  THE    HALF  CENTURY. 

A  single  fact  will  show  how  the  insane  were 
treated  before  the  establishment  of  asylums.  In  89 
towns  in  Massachusetts,  in  1829,  there  were  289  in 
sane  persons,  161  of  whom  were  confined,  either  in 
private  houses,  poorhouses,  or  jails.  Of  those  in 
jails,  4  had  been  confined  20  years,  3  had  been  con 
fined  25  years,  one  35,  two  40,  and  one  45. 

The  first  asylums  for  the  insane  in  this  country 
were  either  private  establishments,  or  appendages  to 
some  hospital.  The  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century,  received  some  patients 
who  were  insane.  The  oldest  institution  exclusive 
ly  for  the  insane,  of  which  the  writer  has  any  knowl 
edge,  is  the  Maryland  Asylum,  founded  in  1816,  and 
the  Friends'  Asylum  at  Frankford,  seven  miles  from 
Philadelphia,  established  in  1817.  In  1818,  the 
M'Lean  Asylum  was  opened  at  Charlestown,  Massa 
chusetts,  which  is  a  branch  of  the  Massachusetts 
General  Hospital,  located  at  Boston. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  asylums 
for  the  insane  in  the  United  States  :  — 

Maryland  Asylum,  at  Baltimore,  commenced  1816. 

The  Friends'  Asylum,  at  Frankford,  Pa.,  "  1817. 

M'Lean  Asylum,  at  Charlestown,  "  1818. 

New  York  Asylum,  at  Bloomingdale,  "  1821. 

Retreat  for  the  Insane,  at  Hartford,  Conn.  "  1824. 

>  Kentucky  Asylum,  at  Lexington,  "  1824. 

South  Carolina  Asylum,  at  Columbia,  "  1827. 

Western  Asylum,  at  Staunton,  Va.,  "  1828. 

Dr.  White's  Asylum,  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  "  1830. 

tate  Lunatic  Hospital,  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  "  1833. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Vermont  Asylum,  at  Brattleborough, 
•  New  York  Asylum,  on  Blackwell's  Island, 

Ohio  Asylum,  at  Columbus, 
^Tennessee  Asylum,  at  Nashville, 

Boston  Lunatic  Hospital, 

Georgia  Asylum  at  Milledgeville, 


Maine  Asylum,  at  Augusta, 
Pennsylvania  Asylum,  at  Philadelphia, 
New  Hampshire  Asylum,  at  Concord, 
New  York  Asylum,  at  Utica, 
Mount  Hope  Asylum,  at  Baltimore, 


i3i    T 

117V, 

d  1837. 
1838. 
1838. 
1838. 
1839. 
1840. 
1840. 
1840. 
1841. 
1842. 
1843. 
1843. 


Besides  these,  there  is  "one  at  Williamsburg,  Virginia, 
and  one  at  Frankfort,  Kentucky.  New  Jersey  makes 
provision  for  its  insane  at  New  York  and  Philadel 
phia.  Rhode  Island  has  received  a  legacy  of  $30,000 
from  the  estate  of  Mr.  Butler,  of  Providence,  towards 
the  erection  of  a  Lunatic  Asylum,  which  is  now  in 
progress. 

The  number  received  at  14  asylums,  in  1842,  was 
1,271 ;  the  number  received  at  15  asylums,  in  1843, 
was  1,508. 

Much  has  been  .done  for  the  insane,  within  a  few 
years,  by  Miss  D.  L.  Dix,  a  native  of  Boston,  who 
spends  her  time  hi  collecting  facts  respecting  the 
condition  of  the  insane  and  prisoners,  and  presenting 
them  to  the  legislatures,  with  a  plea  to  send  relief. 

She  commenced  her  labors  in  Massachusetts,  in 
1842,  and  proceeded  to  New  York  in  1843 ;  to  New 
Jersey  in  1844  ;  to  Kentucky  in  1845  ;  to  Tennessee 
in  1846  ;  to  Illinois  and  North  Carolina  in  1847  and 


118  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

1848.  After  spending  most  of  a  year  in  a  state  in 
visiting  jails,  prisons,  alrnshouses,  and  other  places 
where  the  poor  and  suffering  may  be  found,  she  em-  « 
bodies  her  investigations  in  a  report,  and  presents  it 
with  a  memorial  to  the  legislature  for  some  specific 
aid.  Her  reports  have  been  faithful,  and  have  been 
spoken  of  with  commendation  in  many  parts  of  our 
land. 

Note.  —  Since  the  above  was  written,  I  have  seen 
it  stated  in  a  Medical  Journal,  that  the  Asylum  for 
the  Insane  at  Williarnsburg,  Virginia,  was  estab 
lished  in  1773.  I  suppose,  however,  it  was  not  like 
the  asylums  of  modern  times,  but  more  properly  a 
part  of  the  prison  devoted  to  that  class  of  convicts. 

I  have  recently  seen  a  prospectus  for  a  private 
insane  hospital,  that  was  issued  in  1814,  by  Dr. 
George  Parkrnan,  of  Boston,  who  was  murdered  in 
November,  1849.  The  probability  is,  that  attention 
was  directed  to  this  class  of  persons  in  several  states 
about  the  same  time. 


SECTION  5.  —  Instruction  of  Idiots. 

IN  the  winter  of  1845-6,  several  gentlemen  in 
Boston  and  vicinity  became  interested  in  the  con 
dition  of  idiots,  and  determined  that  something  should 
be  attempted  for  their  improvement.  At  their  solici 
tation,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  passed  a 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  119 

resolve  authorizing  the  governor  to  appoint  commis 
sioners  to  inquire  into  the  condition,  and  ascertain 
the  number,  of  idiots  in  the  commonwealth,  and 
whether  any  thing  can  be  done  in  their  behalf. 

Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  Horatio  Byington,  and  Oilman 
Kimbali,  were  appointed  commissioners.  They  made 
a  meagre  report  in  1847,  and  were  directed  to  con 
tinue  their  labors  :  they  visited  77  towns,  in  which 
they  found  574  idiots,  and  estimated  the  number  in 
the  state  to  exceed  1200.  In  1848,  they  made  a 
report  with  a  supplement,  which  is  a  valuable  docu 
ment  of  150  pages.  It  gives  a  learned  answer  to  the 
question,  Who  are  idiots  ?  The  following  is  the 
definition  adopted :  — 

"  Idiocy  may  be  denned  to  be  that  condition  of  a 
human  being  in  which,  from  some  morbid  cause  in 
the  bodily  organization,  the  faculties  and  sentiments 
remain  dormant  and  undeveloped,  so  that  the  person 
is  incapable  of  self-guidance,  and  of  approaching  that 
degree  of  knowledge  usual  with  others  of  his  age." 
There  are  various  degrees  of  idiocy. 

The  commissioners  say  that  successful  attempts 
were  made  in  France,  as  early  as  1825,  to  improve 
this  class  of  persons.  Schools  have  been  established 
for  their  benefit  in  Prussia  and  England.  Some 
experiments  were  made  by  Dr.  Howe,  sufficient  to 
convince  himself  that  idiots  were  susceptible  of  im 
provement. 

The  legislature  appropriated  $2,500  for  the  purpose 
of  teaching  and  training  ten  idiotic  children,  to  be 


120  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

selected  by  the  governor  and  council  from  the  poor, 
provided  an  arrangement  could  be  made  with  some 
charitable  institution,  patronized  by  the  common 
wealth,  to  undertake  it. 

They  were  put  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Howe,  in  the 
Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind,  and  Mr.  James  B. 
Richards,  a  teacher  in  Boston,  was  employed  to  in 
struct  them. 

Dr.  Howe  made  a  report  to  the  legislature  in  1850, 
an  interesting  document  of  72  pages. 

The  pupils  selected  were  between  five  and  twelve 
years  of  age.  The  report,  in  conclusion,  says,  "  The 
result,  thus  far,  seems  to  be  most  gratifying  and  en 
couraging.  Of  the  whole  number  received,  there 
was  not  one  who  was  in  a  situation  where  any  great 
improvement  in  his  condition  was  probable,  or  hardly 
possible.  They  were  growing  worse  in  their  habits, 
and  more  confirmed  in  their  idiocy.  The  process  of 
deterioration  has  been  checked  entirely,  and  that  of 
improvement  has  commenced  ;  and  though  a  year  is 
a  very  short  time  in  the  instruction  of  such  persons, 
yet  its  effects  are  manifest  in  all  of  them.  They 
have  all  improved  in  personal  appearance  and  habits, 
in  general  health  and  vigor,  and  in  activity  of  body. 
Some  of  them  can  control  their  own  appetites  in  a 
considerable  degree  :  they  sit  at  the  table  with  the 
teachers,  and  feed  themselves  decently.  Almost  all 
of  them  have  improved  in  the  understanding  and  use 
of  speech."  "  They  have  made  a  start  forward." 
"  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  idiots  are  capable  of 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  121 

improvement,  and  that  they  can  be  raised  from  a 
state  of  low  degradation  to  a  higher  condition." 

Several  of  the  causes  of  idiocy  are  set  forth  in  the 
report,  the  most  prominent  of  which  is  the  low  con 
dition  of  the  physical  organization  of  one  or  both  of 
the  parents,  often  induced  by  intemperance.  Another 
cause  is  the  intermarriage  of  relatives.  It  states 
that  one  twentieth  of  the  cases  examined  were  of 
this  class.  It  is  a  sufficient  reason  why  such  mar 
riages  should  be  prohibited,  as  they  are  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures. 

The  first  thing  aimed  at  is  to  train  the  bodily  func 
tions  and  the  muscular  motions,  and  to  establish 
habits  of  attention.  It  requires  great  labor  and  pa 
tience.  Mr.  Richards  was  obliged  to  make  a  boy 
thirteen  years  old  repeat  three  consecutive  words  640 
times  before  he  could  be  sure  he  would  do  it  cor 
rectly.  / 

In  January,  1850,  the  governor  of  New  York 
recommended  that  provision  should  be  made  in  that 
state  for  the  improvement  of  idiots. 

A  private  institution  has  been  opened  in  Barre, 
Massachusetts,  for  the  improvement  of  idiots. 


SECTION  6.     American  Education  Society. 

As  early  as  1808,   an  Education  Society  was  or 
ganized   in    Plymouth    county,    Massachusetts,    the 
object  of  which  was  to  assist  indigent  young  men  in 
11 


122  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

their  preparation  for  the  Christian  ministry.  It  con 
tinued  ten  years,  and  aided  a  considerable  number. 

In  June,  1814,  Eleazar  Lord,  who  was  then  a 
student  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover, 
published  a  dissertation  on  the  education  of  pious 
young  men  for  the  ministry,  in  which  he  marked  out 
and  recommended  a  course  very  similar  to  that  which 
has  been  pursued  by  the  American  Education  So 
ciety. 

In  March,  1815,  an  association  oT  ladies  was  formed 
in  Boston,  called  the  Education  Society  of  Boston 
and  Vicinity,  to  aid  young  men  of  talents  and  piety, 
who  were  in  indigent  circumstances,  to  prepare  for 
the  ministry.  In  the  summer  of  that  year,  eight 
young  men,  who  met  together  weekly  for  prayer, 
had  their  attention  directed  to  the  same  subject. 
While  praying  for  a  world  lying  in  wickedness,  they 
asked,  Where  shall  men  be  found  to  preach  the  gos 
pel  in  heathen  lands  ?  One  of  them  said,  u  Who 
knows  but  a  society  can  be  formed  to  aid  the  indi 
gent  to  prepare  for  this  work  ?  "  In  July,  they  had 
a  meeting  to  consider  the  expediency  of  forming  such 
a  society.  A  meeting  was  holden  at  the  vestry  of 
Park  Street  church,  to  which  clergymen  and  laymen 
were  invited,  to  advise  and  act  in  reference  to  it.  A 
constitution  was  drafted,  and  August  15,  1815,  the 
American  Education  Society  was  organized. 

The  society  was  incorporated  December,  1816, 
and  the  first  legal  meeting  was  holden  October  15, 
1817. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  123 

Secretaries.  Resigned.  Died. 

Rev.  Asa  Eaton,  D.  D.  Oct.  1825. 

"    Joseph  Harvey,  D.  D.  July,  1826. 

"    Elias  Cornelius,  D.  D.  Jan.  1832.  1832,  aged  38. 

"    William  Cogswell,  D.  D.  "  1841.  1850,      "    62. 

"    Samuel  H.  Riddel,  May,  1850. 

During  the  first  year,  it  aided  7  young  men,  and 
during  the  second,  138.  In  1835  and  1836,  it  aided 
1,040  each  year,  which  was  the  greatest  number  of 
beneficiaries  it  ever  had.  In  1850,  it  aided  436.  The 
whole  number  that  has  been  assisted  by  the  society, 
since  its  organization,  is  not  far  from  4,200. 

The  receipts  of  the  society  for  the  year  ending 
October,  1816,  were  $5,714;  for  the  year  ending  at 
the  annual  meeting  in  1819,  they  were  $19,330  ;  for 
1835,  §83,062,  which  was  the  greatest  sum  ever 
received  in  a  single  year.  For  1850,  the  receipts 
were  $28,428.  The  whole  amount  that  has  been 
received  by  this  society  since  its  organization,  is 
$916,081. 

At  first,  the  annual  meetings  were  holden  in 
October,  on  which  occasion  a  sermon  was  preached. 
In  1826,  the  time  of  the  annual  meeting  was  changed 
to  May,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  time  of  the  meetings 
of  other  benevolent  societies,  and  addresses  took  the 
place  of  the  sermon. 

At  first,  the  society  afforded  as  much  aid  as  its 
beneficiaries  needed.  In  1817,  it  began  to  pay  to 
each  the  same  sum  annually ;  and  in  1820,  it  adopted 
the  plan  of  loaning  the  money,  and  taking  the 


124  THE    HALF  CENTURY. 

student's  note.  In  1826,  it  required  its  beneficiaries 
to  refund  the  whole,  with  interest,  after  they  had 
completed  their  education. 

For  several  years  the  society  sent  its  agents  to 
collect  funds  in  any  part  of  the  Union  where  there 
was  a  prospect  of  obtaining  them.  In  1826,  branch 
societies  were  formed  in  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States,  which  were  auxiliary  to  the  parent  society. 
These  branch  societies  performed  the  labor  of  col 
lecting  and  disbursing  funds  in  their  respective  dis 
tricts,  under  the  general  guidance  of  the  parent 
society. 

In  1831,  a  Presbyterian  branch  was  organized, 
which  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  Society  for  that 
denomination. 

About  1820,  the  society  undertook  to  establish 
scholarships  of  $1,000  each,  the  interest  of  which 
was  to  be  paid  for  the  support  of  one  beneficiary. 
More  than  sixty  such  scholarships  were  established, 
and  in  this  way  the  society  came  in  possession  of  a 
permanent  fund,  which  amounts  to  more  than 
$60,000. 

At  the  commencement  of  1842,  it  was  obvious  the 
cause  had  been  struggling  for  some  time  against  ob 
stacles  arising  in  part  from  some  of  the  practical 
arrangements  of  the  society,  and  in  part  from  the 
altered  circumstances  of  students,  and  the  sentiments 
of  many  on  whom  the  society  depended  for  funds. 
It  was  proposed  to  call  a  special  meeting  of  the  cor 
porate  and  honorary  members,  to  examine  the  whole 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  125 

ground,  and  to  make  such  changes  as  might  be 
deemed  expedient.  Such  a  meeting  was  holden  in 
Boston,  October  19,  1842,  and  continued  in  session 
three  days.  It  was  well  attended,  and  the  whole 
subject  was  discussed  under  three  general  heads. 

1.  Is  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  society,  the 
furnishing  of  indigent  young  men  with  assistance  in 
preparing  for  the  ministry,  a  correct  one  ? 

2.  Is  it  expedient  to  maintain  an  organization  for 
the  promotion  of  the  cause  ? 

3.  Is  the  present  organization,   in  all   its  practical 
details,  the  best  that  can  be  devised  ? 

The  first  two  questions  were  readily  decided  in 
the  affirmative.  The  third,  after  a  full  discussion, 
was  referred  to  a  large  committee,  to  embody  the 
sentiments  expressed,  and  to  report  at  the  next  annual 
meeting.  In  May,  1843,  the  report  was  presented 
and  adopted.  —  See  Tiventy-seventh  Annual  Report. 

Since  then,  the  society  has  not  assisted  young 
men  preparing  for  college.  In  consequence  of  this, 
the  number  of  beneficiaries  is  considerably  diminished. 
Another  reason  for  the  diminution  of  the  number  of 
beneficiaries*  since  1836  may  be  found  in  the  fact, 
that  the  number  of  young  men  preparing  for  the 
ministry  has,  since  about  that  time,  been  constantly 
diminishing. 

In  1827,  the  directors  of  the  society  commenced 
the  publication  of  a  Quarterly  Register,  which  was 
continued  fifteen  years.  It  was  edited  by  the  secre 
tary,  assisted  for  several  years  by  Professor  B.  B. 
11* 


126  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

Edwards,  of  Andover.     It  is  a  very  valuable  statisti 
cal  work,  and  will  be  valuable  in  all  future  time. 


SECTION  7.     Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Collegiate 
and  Theological  Education  at  the  West. 

IN  consequence  of  the  pecuniary  embarrassments 
of  the  country  in  1837,  several  colleges  at  the  west 
failed  to  receive  money  that  had  been  subscribed  for 
their  endowment  and  support.  They  struggled  along 
for  a  time,  and  found  themselves  so  deeply  in  debt, 
that  they  must  sell  their  property  to  pay  their  debts, 
or  appeal  to  the  liberal  in  the  Eastern  States  for 
help.  They  preferred  to  do  the  latter.  Accordingly, 
there  were  agents  at  the  east  presenting  the  claims 
of  five  or  six  colleges,  and  soliciting  aid.  It  produced 
confusion,  and  was  annoying  to  pastors  and  churches, 
to  be  called  upon  for  a  contribution  to  some  western 
institution  five  or  six  times  in  a  year.  It  was  found 
that  something  must  be  done.  It  was  proposed  to 
form  a  society,  to  which  all  applications  should 
be  made  for  aid,  and  the  society  should  collect 
money  for  the  whole,  and  divide  it  among  the 
needy  and  worthy  institutions  in  proportion  to  their 
wants. 

Such  a  society  was  organized  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  in  June,  1843. 

The  following  table  contains  the  statistics  of  the 
society  :  — 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  127 

Place*  of  Meeting.                          Preachers  and  Texts.  Receipts. 

New  York,  Sept.  1844.  #17,011. 

Newark,      Oct.    1845.  Rev.  A.  Barnes,  Prov.  xix.  2.  10,967. 

Springfield,     "     1846.  Dr.  Beman,  Gen.  iv.  9.  15,686. 

Troy,               "     1847.  Dr.  Bacon,  Acts  xix.  9,  10.  14,113. 

New  Haven,  "     1848.  Dr.  Condit,  1  Chron.  xii.  32.  12,339. 

Brooklyn,       "     1849.  Dr.  E.  Beecher,  Isa.  lix.  21,  and  Ix.  19.  11,001. 

The  colleges  aided  were  Western  Reserve,  with  its 
theological  department.  Marietta,  Wabash,  Illinois, 
Knox,  Wittenberg,  and  Beloit  Colleges,  and  Lane 
Theological  Seminary.  The  friends  of  these  institu 
tions  at  the  west  have  been  stimulated  to  increased 
exertions  in  consequence  of  the  aid  received,  and  two 
of  them,  Illinois  and  Western  Reserve,  have  extin 
guished  their  debts,  and  will  be  able  in  future  to 
sustain  themselves.  Rev.  Theron  Baldwin  is  the 
secretary  of  the  society. 

In  1847,  the  society  published  a  series  of  letters  by 
John  Todd,  D.  D.,  addressed  to  a  parishioner,  show 
ing  that  colleges  are  essential  to  the  church  of  God ; 
and  a  Plea  for  College  Libraries,  by  Professor  N. 
Porter,  of  Yale  College.  In  1848,  an  Address  by 
Professor  Haddock,  of  Dartmouth  College,  on  Colle 
giate  Education,  was  published.  The  society  pub 
lishes  an  annual  report  and  the  annual  sermon. 


128  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


SECTION  8.  Societies  for  furnishing  the  West  with 
accomplished  and  well-qualified  Common  School 
Teachers. 

ABOUT  1836,  Miss  Catharine  Beecher  established  a 
Female  Seminary  in  Cincinnati,  the  chief  object  of 
which  was  to  educate  teachers  for  the  west.  She 
entertained  the  idea  that  much  good  might  be  done 
by  locating  in  western  towns  and  cities  well-educated 
teachers.  She  hoped  the  object  she  had  in  view 
would  so  commend  itself  to  the  liberal  and  enlight 
ened,  that  they  would  come  forward,  and  furnish  the 
funds  necessary  to  enable  her  to  carry  out  her  benev 
olent  designs.  A  pecuniary  pressure  came  on,  and 
her  health  failing,  she  was  obliged  to  abandon  her 
project. 

In  the  mean  time,  she  employed  herself  in  collect 
ing  facts  and  making  inquiries  respecting  what  could 
be  done,  and,  in  1845,  published  a  small  volume, 
entitled  the  Duty  of  American  Women  to  their 
Country,  which  was  distributed  gratuitously.  This 
volume  contained  a  graphic  description  of  the  low 
state  of  education  at  the  west,  and  in  it  she  expressed 
her  belief  that  there  were  at  the  east  a  thousand 
females  qualified  arid  willing  to  go  west  and  teach, 
provided  their  travelling  expenses  could  be  borne, 
and  a  school  gathered  ready  for  them  on  their  arrival. 

This  volume  announced  that  a  committee  was 
selected,  to  whom  application  might  be  made  by  per 
sons  at  the  west  in  want  of  good  teachers,  and  called 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  129 

upon  ladies  in  eastern  cities  to  appoint  committees  to 
select  and  send  out  teachers  to  supply  the  wants  of 
those  who  should  make  application.  At  the  same 
time,  she  offered  the  profits  arising  from  the  sale  of 
two  volumes  she  had  published  towards  defraying 
the  travelling  expenses  of  teachers,  and  called  upon 
females  to  purchase  the  volumes,  and  to  extend  the 
sale  of  them. 

In  the  beginning  of  1846,  the  ladies  in  Boston 
organized  a  society  for  promoting  education  at  the 
west.  This  society  is  independent  of  Miss  Beecher, 
though  it  was  called  into  existence  in  consequence 
of  her  appeal.  It  receives  applications  from  western 
towns,  selects  teachers,  and  bears  their  expenses  to 
their  fields  of  labor.  It  has  already  sent  out  a  con 
siderable  number. 

The  Board  of  National  Popular  Education  was 
organized  at  Cleaveland,  Ohio,  in  April,  1847,  which 
was  an  enlargement  of  the  committee  announced  by 
Miss  Beecher,  at  Cincinnati,  in  1845.  The  first  an 
nual  meeting  was  holden  January,  1848.  Ex-Gov 
ernor  Slade  is  the  general  agent  of  the  society.  He 
was  appointed  by  the  committee  at  Cincinnati,  and 
has  been  engaged  in  this  work  since  October,  1846. 

This  society  collects  a  class  at  Hartford,  Connecti 
cut,  in  the  spring,  and  another  in  the  autumn,  and 
sends  out  about  fifty  annually. 


130  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

MORAL  REFORMATION. 


SECTION   1.      The   Temperance  Reformation. 

THE  habit  of  daily  drinking  increased  very  much 
during  the  war  of  the  revolution,  and  continued  to 
increase  rapidly  after  the  restoration  of  peace.  It 
was  accompanied  by  all  its  kindred  vices.  Very  little 
was  done,  for  many  years,  to  arrest  its  progress,  or  to 
promote  a  reformation.  A  sermon  was  occasionally 
preached,  but  the  preacher  was  often  regarded  as 
turning  aside  from  his  appropriate  work  to  meddle 
with  that  which  did  not  concern  him. 

The  first  thing  that  was  done,  that  produced  any 
marked  effect,  was  the  publication  of  a  tract,  in  1804, 
by  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  of  Philadelphia,  entitled 
An  Inquiry  into  the  Effects  of  Ardent  Spirits  upon 
the  Human  Body  and  Mind.  One  or  two  sermons 
were  published  soon  after.  In  1808,  a  temperance 
society  was  formed  at  Saratoga,  New  York.  It  was 
a  local  association,  limited  in  its  influence,  and  seems 
not  to  have  grown  out  of  any  special  interest  that 
preceded,  nor  to  have  produced  any  great  effect. 

In  May,  1811,  Dr.  Rush  presented  to  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  then  in  session 
in  Philadelphia,  1,000  copies  of  his  Inquiry.  Tiie 
assembly  appointed  a  committee  of  ten,  to  devise 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  131 

some  measures  to  diminish  this  growing  evil,  and  to 
report  to  the  assembly.  Delegates  from  some  of  the 
New  England  States  were  present,  who  participated 
in  the  interest  which  was  awakened  by  the  tract. 
The  subject  was  taken  up  and  discussed  in  most  of 
the  ecclesiastical  bodies  that  met  during  that  summer 
in  the  New  England  States. 

The  incipient  movements  of  all  these  bodies  of 
clergymen  were  tame  and  cautious.  They  seemed 
to  feel  that  they  were  grappling  with  a  monster  of 
unknown  power.  The  mere  passing  of  resolutions, 
expressive  of  their  disapprobation  of  the  custom  of 
drinking,  was  considered  a  wonderful  triumph  of 
principle.  It  probably  required  as  much  moral  cour 
age  to  do  that,  as  it  did  at  a  later  day  to  sign  a  pledge 
of  total  abstinence  from  every  thing  that  can  intoxi 
cate.  Some,  it  is  said,  were  then  prepared  to  abstain 
from  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  ;  but  many  ven 
erable  men  were  opposed  to  any  decisive,  action.  A 
single  fact  will  illustrate  the  state  of  feeling  which 
then  existed.  One  clergyman,  who  banished  intox 
icating  liquors  from  his  house,  said  his  feelings  were 
exceedingly  tried  by  having  one  of  his  brethren,  a 
man  of  high  respectability,  refuse  to  dine  with  him, 
on  the  ground  that  he  had  no  brandy  upon  his  table. 

In  November,  1811,  at  a  meeting  of  the  New 
York  Synod,  a  sermon  was  preached,  proposing  total 
abstinence  as  the  remedy  for  intemperance.  A  letter 
was  received  by  that  body  from  Rev.  Lynian  Beecher, 
D.  D.,  of  Litchfield.  exhorting  them  to  attack  the 


132  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

monster  boldly.  The  following  resolution  was  finally 
adopted :  — 

Resolved,  "  That  hereafter,  ardent  spirits  and  wine 
shall  constitute  no  part  of  our  entertainment  at  any 
of  our  public  meetings,  and  that  it  be  recommended 
to  churches  not  to  treat  Christian  brethren  or  others 
with  alcoholic  drinks,  as  a  part  of  hospitality  in 
friendly  visits." 

A  letter  was  sent  to  the  churches  under  the  care 
of  the  synod,  calling  their  attention  to  this  resolution. 
The  individual  who  was  appointed  to  prepare  the 
letter,  remarked,  that  after  all,  he  had  very  little  faith 
in  total  abstinence.  He  did  not  believe  there  was 
any  great  harm  in  taking  a  little,  when  he  was  ex 
hausted  by  the  labors  of  the  Sabbath,  nor  did  he 
think  it  improper  to  invite  a  parishioner,  who  called 
with  some  token  of  his  regard,  to  take  some  refresh 
ment.-  He  changed  his  mind,  however,  a  few  weeks 
after.  One  of  his  parishioners  brought  him  a  piece 
of  meat,  and  took  so  much  refreshment,  that  he  be 
came  intoxicated.  The  thought,  that  he  had  put  the 
bottle  to  his  neighbor's  mouth,  and  made  him  drunk 
en,  so  affected  his  mind,  that  he  resolved  never  to 
offer  alcoholic  drinks  again  to  any  one. 

In  October,  1812,  the  clergymen  in  Fairfield 
county,  Connecticut,  resolved  not  to  use  strong  drinks, 
as  a  beverage,  at  their  future  meetings.  A  committee 
was  appointed  to  prepare  an  address  to  their  people, 
on  the  subject.  Rev.  Heman  Humphrey,  D.  D.,  was 
on  that  committee. 


THE  HALF   CENTURY: 

The  committee  appointed  by  the 
bly,  in  May,  1811,  reported  in  May,  1812.  ^So  muck. 
of  the  report  as  recommended  the  collecting  and  dif 
fusing  of  information,  was  accepted ;  but  the  part 
which  recommended  abstinence,  and  the  forming  of 
associations,  was  rejected.  In  June,  1812,  the  Gen 
eral  Association  of  Connecticut  recommended  the 
disuse  of  spirits  in  families,  moderation  in  the  use  of 
it  to  farmers  and  mechanics,  and  that  associations 
should  be  formed  to  aid  the  civil  magistrate  in  ex 
ecuting  the  laws  against  drunkenness.  During  the 
same  month,  an  elaborate  report  of  a  committee, 
appointed  the  year  previous,  was  presented  to  the 
General  Association  of  Massachusetts.  It  was  ascer 
tained  that  2,851,210  gallons  of  spirits  were  distilled 
in  that  state  in  one  year,  and  that  the  cost  of  spirits 
annually  consumed  in  the  United  States  was  from 
twenty-three  to  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars.  The 
association  recommended  the  diffusion  of  infor 
mation  among  the  people  respecting  the  evils  of 
intemperance,  declared  their  belief  that  ministers 
and  Christians  ought  to  abstain  from  this  appearance 
of  evil,  and  that  it  was  questionable  whether  it  was 
right  for  them  to  use  strong  drink  on  any  occasion, 
except  for  medicine.  They  also  recommended  that 
the  laws  against  drunkenness  should  be  enforced,  and 
that  associations  should  be  formed  to  collect  and  dif 
fuse  information,  and  to  excite  a  proper  zeal  among 
the  people  on  the  subject. 

In  February,  1813,  the  Massachusetts  Society  for 
12 


134  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

the  Suppression  of  Intemperance  was  formed.  "  The 
object  of  the  society  was  to  discountenance  and  sup 
press  the  too  free  use  of  ardent  spirits,  and  its  kindred 
vices,  profaneness  and  gaming,  and  to  encourage  tem 
perance  and  general  morality."  Many  societies  of 
this  kind  were  formed  in  New  England.  They  were 
called  by  many  "moral  societies."  No  one  could 
become  a  member  unless  he  sustained  a  good  moral 
character,  was  nominated  in  an  open  meeting,  and 
approved  by  two  thirds  of  the  members  present,  and 
should  pay  two  dollars.  These  societies  labored  to 
suppress  intemperance,  not  by  setting  an  example  of 
total  abstinence  themselves,  but  by  aiding  the  civil 
magistrate  in  the  enforcement  of  the  laws,  in  dif 
fusing  information,  and  in  efforts  to  induce  those  who 
drank  to  drink  less. 

In  1813,  the  General  Association  of  Connecticut 
recommended  to  the  trustees  of  Yale  College  not  to 
furnish  spirits  at  the  public  dinner  on  commencement 
day,  and  to  the  state  authorities  not  to  furnish  them 
for  the  public  dinner  given  to  the  clergy  on  election 
day.  During  this  year,  two  sermons,  preached  by 
Dr.  Beecher  at  the  anniversary  of  a  moral  society, 
were  published,  and  Dr.  Humphrey  published  a  series 
of  Essays  in  the  Panoplist,  recommending  total  absti 
nence.  In  those  Essays,  he  said,  "  My  observation 
authorizes  me  to  believe  that  those  who  are  addicted 
to  the  use  of  spirits  should  abstain  from  it  suddenly 
and  entirely.  '  Taste  not,  touch  not,  handle  not,' 
should  be  inscribed  on  every  vessel  that  contains 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  135 

spirits,  in  the  house  of  the  man  who  wishes  to  be 
cured  of  intemperance." 

Moral  societies  were  formed,  not  only  in  New 
England,  but  in  other  states.  The  amount  of  good 
accomplished  by  these  associations  was  comparatively 
small.  The  intemperate  were  enraged,  but  not  re 
formed.  The  evil,  however,  was  better  understood 
than  it  otherwise  would  have  been,  and  the  people 
learned  the  practicability  and  importance  of  combined 
effort  to  resist  the  progress  of  prevailing  vices.  They 
discovered,  also,  that  those  who  enforce  the  laws 
against  the  vicious  ought  themselves  to  have  clean 
hands.  It  was  difficult  for  those  who  called  them 
selves  moderate  drinkers  to  answer  those' they  called 
drunkards,  when  they  asked,  "In  what  respect  do 
you  differ  from  us?"  All  these  societies,  except  the 
Massachusetts,  became  extinct  after  a  few  years. 
Some  of  the  temperance  addresses  delivered  at  these 
meetings  were  as  thrilling  and  soul-stirring  as  any 
that  have  since  been  listened  to  by  deeply-affected 
auditories. 

At  a  meeting  of  one  of  these  societies,  July  4, 
1817,  forty  farmers  pledged  themselves  to  get  their 
hay  that  summer  without  intoxicating  drinks,  and 
that  they  would  pay  additional  wages  to  those  who 
would  work  for  them  without  using  distilled  liquors. 
Things  continued  thus  for  ten  or  twelve  years.  Here 
and  there  an  individual  abandoned  the  use  of  alco 
holic  druiks ;  some  ceased  to  traffic  in  the  article,  and 
some  refused  to  furnish  it  as  a  beverage  to  those  in 
their  employ. 


136  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  1824,  a  congregation  in  New  England  dug  a 
cellar,  drew  sixty  loads  of  stone  several  miles,  built 
a  parsonage,  moved  a  house  and  fixed  it  upon  a  new 
foundation,  in  which  eighty  men  were  employed,  and 
some  of  them  for  several  weeks,  and  no  spirituous 
liquors  were  used. 

January  10,  1826,  the  first  temperance  society 
was  formed  in  Boston,  the  members  of  which  pledged 
themselves  to  abstain  entirely  from  the  use  of  dis 
tilled  liquors,  except  when  prescribed  by  a  physician. 
It  was  called  the  American  Temperance  Society. 
The  Massachusetts  Society  adopted  a  similar  pledge 
soon  after.  The  cause  of  temperance  then  assumed 
a  new  aspect.  The  object  aimed  at  by  this  society 
was  to  suppress  intemperance,  not  so  much  by  the 
strong  arm  of  law,  as  by  argument  enforced  by 
example.  There  was  a  great  number,  who  showed 
by  their  own  practice  that  they  could  perform  any 
kind  of  labor,  and  could  better  endure  fatigue  and 
exposure  to  cold  and  heat,  without  strong  drink,  than 
with  it.  During  that  year,  a  long  series  of  articles 
was  published  in  a  religious  newspaper,  entitled 
the  Infallible  Antidote  ;  or,  Entire  Abstinence  from 
Ardent  Spirits  the  only  Certain  Prevention  of  Intem 
perance.  During  the  same  year,  a  weekly  paper, 
called  the  National  Philanthropist,  was  commerrced 
in  Boston;  it  was  the  first  paper  ever  published 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  cause  of  temperance  ; 
its  motto  was,  "  Temperate  drinking  the  downhill 
road  to  intemperance." 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  137 

In  1827,  the  society  employed  Rev.  N.  Hewit, 
D.  D.,  who  was  called  "the  Apostle  of  Temperance," 
to  traverse  the  country  and  expose  the  evils  of  the 
custom  of  drinking.  Rev.  J.  Edwards,  D.  D.,  spent 
some  months  in  a  similar  agency.  The  prospect 
began  to  brighten ;  temperance  associations  were 
multiplied.  In  almost  every  place  visited  by  the 
agents,  some  individuals  were  found,  who  had  been 
practising  total  abstinence,  and  were  satisfied  not 
only  that  it  was  safe,  but  highly  beneficial  to  health, 
and  a  promoter  of  prosperity.  It  was  not  uncommon, 
when  the  first  temperance  meeting  was  holden  in  a 
place,  for  one  or  more  persons,  at  the  close  of  an 
address,  to  rise  and  say,  "  All  we  have  heard  in  favor 
of  abstinence  is  true,  for  we  have  tried  the  experi 
ment,  and  are  satisfied  that  alcoholic  drinks  are  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  hurtful."  The  movement 
seemed  to  be  simultaneous  through  the  country. 
Persons  in  states  remote  from  each  other,  and  with 
out  any  consultation,  came  out  and  took  a  public 
stand  in  favor  of  total  abstinence.  This  appeared  so 
wonderful,  that  many  regarded  it  as  proof  that  the 
Divine  Spirit  moved  upon  the  minds  of  men  through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  During  this 
year,  a  small  volume  of  sermons  by  Dr.  Beecher  was 
published,  and  very  widely  disseminated  through  the 
country :  also  a  volume  of  sermons  by  Rev.  J.  G. 
Palfrey,  since  a  member  of  Congress  from  Massachu 
setts,  and  Kittredge's  Address,  were  published. 

At  the  beginning  of  1828,  the  custom  of  treating 
12* 


138  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

visitors  with  wine,  cordials,  and  brandy  began  to 
disappear.  The  sideboards  of  the  rich  and  influen 
tial,  which  hitherto  had  groaned  under  a  load  of 
decanters,  were  relieved  of  their  burden  j  and  a  very 
great  change  in  the  customs  of  society  began  to  be 
apparent.  In  1828,  Dr.  Hewit  was  appointed  to  an 
agency  for  three  years.  At  the  close  of  this  year, 
there  were  reported  in  temperance  journals  225  tem 
perance  societies.  At  the  close  of  1829,  there  were 
more  than  1,000,  embracing  more  than  100,000 
members,  pledged  to  total  abstinence ;  50  distilleries 
had  stopped,  400  merchants  had  abandoned  the  traffic, 
and  1,200  drunkards  had  been  reclaimed.  The  re 
form  had  commenced  in  good  earnest,  and  those  who 
were  zealous  in  the  cause  were  sanguine  in  the  belief 
that,  in  a  very  few  years,  distilled  liquors  would  be 
banished  from  the  country,  and  a  drunkard  would 
be  rara  avis,  —  a  great  curiosity. 

On  the  1st  of  May,  1831,  it  appeared  that  more 
than  300,000  persons  had  signed  the  pledge,  and  not 
less  than  50,000  were  supposed  to  have  been  saved 
from  a  drunkard's  grave. 

There  was,  however,  much  opposition  from  those 
whose  love  of  intoxicating  drink  had  become  strong, 
and  from  those,  also,  who  loved  the  profits  of  the 
traffic.  They  said  their  liberties  were  in  danger ; 
their  fathers  had  fought  for  liberty;  and  they  would 
shoulder  their  muskets,  and  fight  over  the  battles 
of  freedom,  before  they  would  relinquish  their  right 
to  drink  when  they  pleased.  A  very  common  objec- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  139 

tion,  made  by  many  of  the  poor,  was,  that  they  could 
not  afford  to  drink  wine,  that  signing  the  pledge 
operated  unequally;  it  took  from  them  the  use  of  all 
stimulants  but  cider  and  beer,  but  it  left  to  the  rich 
the  use  of  wine,  which  was  often  about  as  strong  as 
Cogniac  brandy.  In  order  to  obviate  this  objection, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  introduce  a  new  pledge, 
prohibiting  the  use,  not  only  of  distilled,  but  of 
fermented,  liquors.  The  first  society  that  adopted 
this  pledge  was  the  Eighth  Ward  Branch  of  the 
New  York  City  Temperance  Society.  This  was 
called  the  tee-total  pledge, — a  name  first  given  to  it 
in  Preston,  England,  —  and  was  adopted  in  that 
country  in  1833.  The  subject  was  discussed  in  this 
country  in  1834,  and  some  societies  formed.  In 
May,  1835,  the  American  Society,  the  centre  of 
whose  operations  was  at  Boston,  recommended  the 
tee-total  pledge ;  in  July  of  the  same  year,  it  was 
recommended  by  the  New  York  City  Temperance 
Society,  and  in  February,  1836,  by  the  New  York 
State  Temperance  Society.  During  this  year,  socie 
ties  that  were  formed  on  the  old  pledge  were  dis 
banded,  and  new  ones  formed.  Many  who  signed 
the  old  pledge  refused  to  sign  the  new;  of  course 
there  was  an  apparent  falling  off  in  the  number  of 
the  members  of  temperance  societies.  Some  who 
had  delivered  public  addresses,  and  stood  foremost 
in  the  rank  of  reformers,  were  thrown  into  the  back 
ground,  and  were  silent  spectators  of  passing  events. 
The  New  York  State  Temperance  Society  did 


140  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

more,  perhaps,  than  any  other,  for  the  promotion  of 
the  cause.  Edward  C.  Delavan,  the  chairman  of  its 
executive  committee,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Albany, 
together  with  John  T.  Norton  and  several  others, 
contributed  freely  for  the  support  of  the  "Temper 
ance  Recorder,"  which  was  commenced  in  Albany 
about  1831.  The  issues  of  that  paper  monthly  were 
sometimes  more  than  50,000.  It  was  continued 
about  ten  years,  and  rendered  essential  service  to  the 
cause.  Mr.  Delavan  has  probably  expended  more 
money  in  this  cause  than  any  other  man  in  the 
United  States,  for  which  he  has  the  thanks  of  a 
grateful  community,  and  his  name  is  enrolled  among 
the  benefactors  of  his  race.  This  is  the  man  who 
exposed  the  character,  or  rather  the  contents,  of 
Albany  ale,  and  was  prosecuted  by  John  Taylor,  a 
brewer  of  Albany,  for  a  libel.  The  case  was  tried 
in  1840,  the  report  of  which  is  before  the  public ; 
the  verdict  of  the  jury  was  in  favor  of  the  defendant, 
with  costs. 

In  this  connection,  it  should  be  recorded  that 
L.  M.  Sargent,  Esq.,  of  Massachusetts,  rendered  an 
essential  service  to  the  temperance  reformation  by 
his  Temperance  Tales,  published  before  and  after 
1836,  forming  eight  or  ten  neat  ISmo.  volumes. 
They  are  written  in  an  elegant  style,  and  were  read 
with  intense  interest. 

From  1836  to  1840,  the  cause  advanced  slowly. 
The  subject  of  license  laws  was  discussed  largely  in 
legislatures,  and  some  unwise  laws  were  enacted, 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  141 

which  diverted  the  public  mind  from  the  great  work 
hi  which  they  had  been  successfully  engaged. 

Among  the  things  to  be  remembered  is  the  assault, 
prosecution,  and  imprisonment  of  the  Rev.  George  B. 
Cheever,  of  Salem,  Mass.,  now  Dr.  Cheever,  of 
New  York.  About  the  beginning  of  1835,  he  pub 
lished,  in  the  "  Landmark,"  a  description  of  Deacon 
Giles's  Distillery.  It  was  awful,  horrid,  shocking  to 
the  sensibilities  of  drunkards  themselves ;  and  yet  it 
seems  to  have  been  so  true,  that  every  body  in  Salem 
and  vicinity  knew  who  sat  for  the  picture.  Soon 
after,  Mr.  Cheever  was  assaulted  in  the  night  by  the 
foreman  of  the  distillery,  who  inflicted  upon  him  a 
severe  flagellation  with  a  raw  hide,  to  which  Mr.  C. 
made  no  resistance.  He  was  prosecuted  for  a  libel 
by  Deacon  John  Stone,  of  Salem,  and  the  jury  re 
turned  a  verdict  against  the  defendant.  He  was 
sentenced  to  thirty  days'  imprisonment,  which  sen 
tence  was  executed  in  January,  1836.  Though  the 
law  was  against  him,  the  sympathies  of  the  com 
munity  were  with  him.  He  was  regarded  as  a 
martyr  to  the  cause  of  temperance,  rather  than  as  a 
felon. 

In  1840,  a  few  drunkards  in  Baltimore  formed 
themselves  into  a  temperance  society,  adopting  the 
tee-total  pledge.  None  were  admitted  but  reformed 
drunkards ;  they  had  public  meetings,  at  which  they 
related  their  own  experience.  They  excited  great 
interest ;  the  community  learned  that  the  half  of  the 
evils  of  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a  beverage  had  not 


142  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

been  told.  John  Hawkins  was  a  prominent  member 
of  this  society.  Some  of  them  were  invited  to  visit 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston,  to  narrate  their 
experience,  and  lecture,  so  far  as  they  were  able. 
Hawkins  was  a  man  of  considerable  native  eloquence, 
and  has  devoted  most  of  his  time,  since  his  reforma 
tion,  to  the  advancement  of  the  cause  of  temperance. 

Societies  composed  of  reformed  drunkards,  and 
others  associated  with  them  for  their  aid  and  encour 
agement,  were  called  Washingtonian  societies.  They 
carefully  watched  over  those  who  signed  the  pledge, 
furnished  them  with  food  and  clothing,  for  a  time, 
if  necessary,  procured  employment  for  those  who 
needed  it,  and  if  any  one  violated  his  pledge,  they 
gathered  around  him,  and  encouraged  him  to  renew 
it.  They  were  sent  abroad  to  lecture,  and  paid  for 
their  services.  The  attention  they  received  inspired 
many  a  drunkard  with  the  hope  of  redeeming  his 
character,  and  rising  again  to  respectability  and  influ 
ence. 

Too  much  importance  was  given  to  these  labors. 
The  former  advocates  of  temperance  sat  down  and 
listened  to  the  Washingtonians.  who  began  to  feel 
that  nothing  had  been  accomplished  by  the  old  and 
early  advocates  of  the  cause.  They  ran  well  for  a 
time  ;  but  many  of  them,  becoming  proud  of  their 
sudden  elevation  from  the  gutter  to  the  rostrum, 
where  they  were  listened  to  by  admiring  crowds, 
said  and  did  things  disgusting  to  a  considerable  por 
tion  of  the  community,  and  soon  lost  their  influence. 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  143 

Moses  Grant,  of  Boston,  a  gentleman  of  wealth 
and  character,  has  done  much  to  promote  the  cause 
of  temperance  in  Boston  and  through  the  state.  He 
was  the  counseller  and  friend  of  the  Washingtonians, 
and  has  done  much  to  sustain  and  encourage  John 
B.  Gough,  the  most  fascinating  and  popular  lecturer 
that  has  ever  addressed  a  public  assembly  on  that 
subject. 

The  American  Temperance  Union  was  organized 
in  1837.  Rev.  John  Marsh  is  its  secretary,  and  has 
devoted  himself,  from  its  organization  to  the  present 
time,  to  the  diffusion  of  information,  and  to  endeavors 
to  induce  all  to  abandon  forever  the  use  of  all  intox 
icating  drinks  as  a  beverage. 

During  a  few  years  past,  the  cause  has  languished, 
owing  chiefly,  I  think,  to  the  division  of  public 
opinion  respecting  the  best  means  of  advancing  the 
cause.  Some  have  been  in  favor  of  moral  suasion, 
and  some  of  legal  suasion.  Some  have  been  in  favor 
of  giving  every  man  liberty  to  sell  who  pleased,  with 
the  hope  that  it  would  cease  to  be  profitable.  Some 
have  asked  for  new  and  severe  laws  against  the  traffic. 
Some  have  been  in  favor  of  treating  the  subject 
seriously,  and  connecting  it  more  closely  with  reli 
gion,  and  others  for  separating  it  from  religion,  as 
widely  as  a  moral  question  can  be.  In  consequence 
of  these  divisions  of  opinion  in  regard  to  men  and 
measures,  the  temperance  cause  has  been  shorn  of 
much  of  its  strength.  We  cannot  expect  to  see  it 
advance  with  rapid  strides  till  the  friends  of  the 


144  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

reformation  are  united  in  their  opinions  in  regard  to 
what  they  ought  to  do. 

In  closing  this  sketch,  I  should  do  injustice,  if  I 
should  omit  to  mention  the  name  of  Dr.  Charles 
Jewett,  who  was  employed  by  the  Massachusetts  so 
ciety  for  several  years  previous  to  1848,  and  who, 
take  him  all  in  all,  is  one  of  the  most  ahle  lecturers 
that  has  ever  been  employed  to  advance  this  noble 
cause. 

It  is  impossible,  in  so  brief  a  sketch,  to  mention  all 
that  has  been  done  for  the  promotion  of  temperance 
during  the  last  twenty-three  years,  or  to  mention  a 
tithe  of  the  names  of  those  to  whom  the  public  are 
indebted  for  what  has  been  accomplished. 


SECTION  2.     Anti-Slavery. 

THE  discussions  on  the  subject  of  slavery  during 
the  last  fifty  years  have  been  so  numerous,  the  modes 
of  action  so  various,  and  the  published  documents  so 
voluminous,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  brief  outline 
of  the  whole  matter.  I  shall  aim  only  to  narrate  the 
most  important  facts  and  events  in  the  order  in  which 
they  occurred. 

When  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  was 
formed,  the  subject  of  slavery  was  fully  discussed. 
Some  were  for  abolishing  it  entirely.  They  said  it 
was  a  shame  for  those  who  had  appealed  to  the  Su 
preme  Being  as  the  God  of  freedom,  and  had 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  145 

obtained  that  for  which  they  asked,  to  encourage  the 
slave  traffic,  or  to  hold  their  fellow-men  in  bondage. 
The  most  they  could  accomplish,  however,  was  to 
allow  the  insertion  of  an  article  in  the  constitution 
deferring  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade  till  1808. 

In  1807,  it  was  enacted  by  Congress,  that  after  the 
1st  of  January,  1808,  it  should  not  be  lawful  to 
import  into  the  United  States  persons  of  color,  to  be 
held  or  sold  as  slaves. 

In  1820,  it  was  further  enacted,  that  if  any  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  or  any  person  whatever,  be 
longing  to  a  vessel  owned  wholly  or  in  part  by  citi 
zens  of  the  United  States,  should  land  on  any  foreign 
shore  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  colored  persons,  or 
should  receive  them  on  board  a  ship  for  the  purpose 
of  enslaving  them,  he  should  be  adjudged  a  pirate, 
and  should  suffer  the  punishment  of  piracy. 

During  the  present  century,  slavery  has  been  abol 
ished  in  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  and 
New  Jersey.  The  abolition  was  gradual,  giving 
freedom  to  children  when  they  should  attain  to  a 
certain  age,  and  to  all  after  a  certain  date.  If  it  be 
said  that  slavery  was  abolished  when  the  law  for 
gradual  emancipation  was  enacted,  then  it  was  abol 
ished  in  three  of  the  above-named  states  during  the 
last  century,  and  in  the  fourth,  New  Jersey,  in  1804. 
But  slavery  did  not  entirely  cease  in  New  York  till 
July  4,  1827,  nor  in  Connecticut  was  it  abolished  by 
law  till  1848,  though  emancipation  laws  began  to 
take  effect  in  1809.  There  may  still  be  some  in 
13 


146  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

New    Jersey    who   are,    in   law,  slaves,    though   not 
treated  as  such.     In  1840,  there  were  674. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  century,  abolition  or 
manumission  societies  existed  in  some  of  the  slave 
states,  by  which  public  attention  was  called  to  the 
slave  system,  though  little  was  done  directly  for  the 
removal  of  the  evil.  During  the  administration  of 
Jefferson,  before  and  after  the  purchase  of  Louisiana, 
the  state  of  Virginia  sought,  through  the  agency  of 
the  general  government,  to  obtain  an  asylum  for  free 
people  of  color.  This,  however,  was  no  indication 
of  any  anti-slavery  tendencies  ;  for  in  the  slave  states, 
free  negroes  have  always  been  considered  a  nuisance. 
Their  presence  has  a  tendency  to  make  slaves  dis 
contented  and  uneasy.  There  has  always  been  in 
those  states  a  small  minority  in  favor  of  emancipa 
tion  ;  but  few,  probably,  have  been  willing  to  eman 
cipate  without  remuneration. 

For  some  years  previous  to  1816,  there  was  a  sort 
of  national  manumission  society,  that  held  a  public 
meeting,  biennially,  at  Washington.  -  These  aboli 
tion  and  manumission  societies  may  be  regarded  as 
the  first  stage  in  the  development  of  anti- .slavery  feel 
ing,  and  the  formation  of  the  Colonization  Society 
as  the  second.  The  subject  of  slavery  was  agitated 
by  a  few  here  and  there,  during  the  first  sixteen  years 
of  this  century,  both  in  the  free  and  slave  states, 
though  their  sentiments  did  not  commend  themselves 
to  the  sympathy  nor  consideration  of  the  mass  of  the 
people. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  147 

The  following  extract  from  a  letter,  written  by  a 
gentleman  in  Baltimore  to  his  friend  in  England,  in 
1816,  presents  a  view  of  public  sentiment  in  that 
quarter  at  that  time  :  — 

"  Forty  years  ago,  when  my  father  gave  liberty  to 
those  in  his  possession,  it  excited  the  greatest  alarm 
throughout  the  state,  and  every  effort  which  sophis 
try  could  suggest  was  made  to  induce  him  to  retract. 
Now  emancipation  seems  to  engage  the  attention  of 
all  ranks.  Societies  are  forming  in  the  midst  of  the 
slave  states  ;  in  some  instances,  almost  exclusively  by 
slaveholders,  for  the  express  purpose  of  promoting 
that  interesting  measure.  Formerly,  the  right  to 
hold  slaves  was  scarcely  ever  questioned  ;  now  it  is 
admitted,  on  all  sides,  that  they  are  justly  entitled  to 
their  liberty.  Under  this  impression,  many  are  dis 
posed  to  emancipate  them,  but  are  not  willing  to  turn 
them  loose  upon  the  community  without  education. 
The  societies  to  which  I  have  alluded  seem  to  be  at 
present  in  favor  of  colonization." 

"  Many  families,  of  the  first  rank,  have  manumitted 
their  slaves,  and  few  die  without  making  provision 
for  their  enlargement." 

A  few  in  the  Southern  States  began  thus  early 
to  regard  slavery  as  a  great  moral  and  social  evil. 
There  were,  and  has  continued  to  be  occasional 
insurrections  among  the  slaves,  and  combinations 
against  their  masters,  so  that,  in  cities  and  large  towns, 
it  has  been  necessary  to  keep  a  vigilant  watch,  lest 
they  should  rise  and  assassinate  the  white  people. 


148  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

It  was  supposed  that  this  desire  for  liberty  was 
excited  by  intercourse  with  free  negroes.  Hence 
Virginia,  in  1805,  prohibited  any  master  from  eman 
cipating  his  slaves,  without  removing  them  from  the 
state.  Since  then,  similar  laws  have  been  passed  in 
all  the  slave  states,  and  also  laws  requiring  free  ne 
groes  to  leave  the  state,  or  they  were  liable  to  be  sold 
into  perpetual  bondage. 

In  December,  1816,  meetings  were  holden  in 
Washington,  composed  of  members  of  Congress  and 
others,  embodying  the  sentiments  of  those  who 
wished  to  do  something  for  the  removal  of  free  ne 
groes,  and  of  those  who  wished  to  encourage  and 
promote  emancipation.  Out  of  these  deliberations 
grew  the  American  Colonization  Society.  It  was 
organized  January  1,  1817.  Bushrod  Washington, 
was  chosen  president.  The  following  articles  of 
the  constitution  show  the  aim  and  object  of  the 
society :  — 

Article  I.  "  This  society  shall  be  called  the  Ameri 
can  Society  for  Colonizing  the  Free  People  of  Color 
in  the  United  States. 

Article  2.  "The  object  to  which  its  attention  is 
to  be  exclusively  directed,  is  to  promote  and  execute 
a  plan  for  colonizing,  with  their  consent,  the  free 
people  of  color  residing  in  our  country,  in  Africa,  or 
such  other  place  as  Congress  shall  deem  most  expe 
dient  ;  and  the  society  shall  act,  to  feffect  this  object, 
in  cooperation  with  the  general  government,  and  such 
of  the  states  as  may  adopt  regulations  on  the  subject." 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  149 

February  11,  1817,  Congress  passed  a  resolve  au 
thorizing  the  president  of  the  United  States  to  make 
arrangements  with  other  governments  for  the  entire 
suppression  of  the  slave  trade,  and  with  Great  Britain 
for  the  introduction  of  colonists  into  their  colony  at 
Sierra  Leone. 

The  Rev.  Samuel  J.  Mills  and  Rev.  E.  Burgess 
were  appointed,  by  the  society,  as  agents  to  England, 
and  to  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  to  see  what  could  be 
done  for  the  advancement  of  the  cause.  They  sailed 
for  England  in  November,  1817.  In  February,  1818, 
they  sailed  from  England  for  Africa.  Mr.  Mills  died 
at  sea,  on  his  return,  June  16,  1818,  aged  35. 

A  tract  of  land  was  purchased  of  the  natives  at 
Cape  Mesurado,  and  called  Liberia,  or  the  land  of  the 
free.  -The  first  colonists  arrived  there  in  June,  1822. 
In  1847,  that  colony  declared  itself  a  free  and  inde 
pendent  republic,  and  unfurled  its  flag  to  the  breeze 
on  the  24th  of  August  of  that  year. 

For  more  than  ten  years,  this  society  embraced 
most  of  the  active  and  efficient  anti-slavery  influence 
in  all  the  states  of  the  Union.  It  was  favored  even  by 
those  who  regarded  slavery  as  a  patriarchal  institution, 
because  it  provided  an  asylum  for  free  negroes,  and 
furnished  the  means  of  ridding  the  slave  states  of 
what  was  there  regarded  as  an  intolerable  nuisance. 
It  was  favored  by  those  who  looked  upon  slavery  as 
a  great  evil,  because  it  held  out  an  inducement  to 
those  whose  consciences  were  troubled,  to  manumit 
thoir  slaves,  and  send  them  back  to  the  land  of  their 
13* 


150  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

fathers.  It  was  hoped  that  the  existence  of  the 
society  would  influence  many  to  liberate  their  slaves 
in  order  to  be  transported,  and  would  hasten  the  time 
of  the  emancipation  of  the  whole. 

In  1818,  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  adopted  and  published  a  memorial  on  the 
subject  of  slavery,  which,  when  we  consider  that  the 
body  was  composed  of  southern  as  well  as  northern 
men,  is  a  remarkable  document.  It  shows  that  some 
good  men  at  the  south  took  high  ground.  They 
said,  — 

"  We  consider  the  voluntary  enslaving  of  one  part 
of  the  human  race  by  another  as  a  gross  violation  of 
the  most  precious  sacred  rights  of  human  nature  ;  as 
utterly  inconsistent  with  the  law  of  God,  which 
requires  us  to  love  our  neighbor  as  ourselves  ;  and  as 
totally  irreconcilable  with  the  spirit  and  principles  of 
the  gospel  of  Christ,  which  enjoins  that  'all  things 
whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do 
ye  even  so  to  them.'  Slavery  creates  a  paradox  in 
the  moral  system ;  it  exhibits  rational,  immortal,  and 
accountable  beings  in  such  circumstances  as  scarcely 
to  leave  them  the  power  of  moral  action. 

"  It  is  manifestly  the  duty  of  all  Christians,  who 
enjoy  the  light  of  the  present  day,  when  the  incon 
sistency  of  slavery,  both  with  the  dictates  of  humanity 
and  religion,  has  been  demonstrated,  and  is  generally 
seen  and  acknowledged,  to  use  their  honest,  earnest, 
and  unwearied  endeavors  to  correct  the  errors  of  for 
mer  times,  and  as  speedily  as  possible  to  efface  this 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  151 

blot  on  our  holy  religion,  and  to  obtain  the  complete 
abolition  of  slavery  throughout  Christendom,  and,  if 
possible,  throughout  the  world."  The  whole  docu 
ment,  from  which  this  is  a  brief  extract,  breathes  the 
same  spirit. 

In  1S20,  Missouri  applied  for  admission  to  the 
Union.  The  members  of  Congress  from  the  free 
states  were  most  of  them  opposed  to  its  admission  as 
a  slave  state,  while  southern  members  claimed  that 
it  should  be  a  slave  state.  An  application  was  made 
to  the  same  Congress  for  the  admission  of  Maine,  and 
southern  men  said,  If  you  will  not  admit  Missouri, 
as  we  wish,  we  will  not  vote  for  the  admission  of 
Maine  as  you  wish.  By  this  threat,  the  representa 
tives  from  some  of  the  free  states  were  induced  to 
vote  for  the  admission  of  Missouri  with  slavery  ;  with 
an  understanding,  however,  that  the  Southern  States 
would  never  ask  for  the  admission  of  another  north 
of  36°  north  latitude.  The  debate  was  long  and 
earnest ;  there  was  more  excitement  than  had  ever 
been  manifested  before  on  this  great  subject. 

This  debate  led  many  slaveholders,  who  had  con 
tributed  to  the  funds  of  the  Colonization  Society,  to 
feel  that  northern  men,  who  contributed  to  the  same 
object,  were  more  anxious  to  make  the  negroes  free 
than  they  were  to  send  away  those  that  were  already 
free.  From  this  time  the  citizens  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  manifested  a  marked  coldness,  and  even 
a  deadly  hostility  to  the  society.  They  seem,  about 
that  time,  to  have  caught  the  idea  that  the  sole  object 


152  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

of  the  society  was  not  to  remove  free  negroes  from 
the  south,  and,  by  so  doing,  to  strengthen  the  system 
of  slavery,  but  that  there  was  a  decided  effort  to  in 
duce  masters  to  emancipate  their  slaves  for  the  purpose 
of  sending  them  to  Africa. 

There  were  many  at  the  north  who  had  no  faith 
in  colonization  as  an  emancipation  scheme,  and  yet 
they  sustained  it  as  the  best  thing  they  could  do 
under  existing  circumstances,  and  as  affording  an  op 
portunity  to  discuss  the  matter  in  the  hearing  of 
southern  people. 

In  1827,  a  pamphlet  was  published  in  South  Caro 
lina,  by  a  slaveholder,  in  which  the  Colonization  So 
ciety  was  denounced  as  making  "  an  insidious  attack 
on  the  domestic  tranquillity  of  the  south,"  and  as  the 
"  nest-egg  placed  in  Congress  by  northern  abolition 
ists,  that  therefrom  might  be  hatched  and  raised,  for 
the  south,  anxiety,  inquietude,  and  troubles  to  which 
there  could  be  no  end."  In  1829,  a  South  Carolina 
paper  asked,  "  Will  Congress  aid  a  society  reprobated 
at  the  south,  and  justly  regarded  as  murderous  in  its 
principles,  and  as  tending  inevitably  to  the  destruc 
tion  of  the  public  peace  ?  " 

A  writer  in  the  Christian  Spectator,  in  1830,  said, 
"  The  agitation  of  the  memorable  Missouri  question 
seriously  and  for  a  long  time  retarded  the  progress  of 
the  Colonization  Society."  The  abolition  element  in 
its  composition  was  feared  at  the  south,  long  before 
any  discovery  was  made  at  the  north  that  it  also  con 
tained  a  pro-slavery  element.  In  September,  1830, 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  153 

the  conductors  of  the  society  felt  themselves  called 
upon  to  publish  a  labored  defence  against  the  attacks 
of  southern  men.  It  may  be  found  in  the  African 
Repository  of  that  date. 

The  next  important  movement,  in  relation  to  slav 
ery,  was  the  publication  of  a  weekly  paper  in  Balti 
more,  called  the  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation. 
The  paper  was  not  important  in  itself ;  it  was  com 
menced  in  1827,  and  was  discontinued  in  1830.     It 
lived  long  enough  to  accomplish  its  mission ;  it  was 
the  first  link  in  a  chain  of  causes  which  has  led  to 
important  results.     It  was  the  instrumental  means  of 
bringing  William  L.  Garrison  into  notice,  and  fixing 
him  in  the  course  he  has  been  pursuing  for  the  last 
twenty  years.      During  the  latter  part  of  the  time, 
Garrison  was  the  assistant  editor  of  that  paper.     For 
writing  an   offensive  article,  he  was  prosecuted  and 
fined  $50  and  costs,  which  were  $100.     Being  un-. 
able  to  pay,  he  was  cast  into   prison  in  Baltimore, 
in  April,  1830,  and  lay  there  49  days,  when  he  was 
liberated  by  Arthur  Tappan,  of  New  York.     Garrison 
came  from  prison  a  martyr  for  the  freedom  of  the 
press  and  for  liberty  of  speech,  and  was  inspired  with 
new   zeal   in  the  cause  of  emancipation.     He  was 
told,  and  probably  thought,  the  Colonization  Society 
ought    to    have   come   to  his  relief.      The  fact   that 
they  did    not    had,  undoubtedly,  some  influence  in 
arousing  his   hostility  against  the    society.       While 
the  people  at  the  south  complained  that  the  society 
was  aiming  to  promote  abolition,  Garrison  and  some 


154  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

others  at  the  north  declared  it  to  be  a  measure  for 
rivetting  the  chains  of  the  slave,  and  for  rendering  his 
freedom  hopeless.  They  said  the  society  sought 
only  to  remove  free  negroes,  that  the  system  itself 
might  have  more  ample  scope  to  grow  undisturbed. 

On  the  1st  of  January,  1831,  Garrison  issued  the 
first  number  of  the  Liberator,  a  weekly  paper,  de 
voted  chiefly  to  the  abolition  of  slavery,  in  which  he 
wrote  in  his  own  peculiar  style,  boldly  and  rashly. 
During  the  first  year,  he  began  to  promulgate  the 
doctrine,  that  slaveholding,  under  all  circumstances, 
is  sin,  and  that  immediate  emancipation  is  the  solemn 
duty  of  every  .slaveholder. 

The  promulgation  of  these  doctrines,  and  the  de 
nunciatory  spirit  of  the  paper,  maddened  the  people 
at  the  south,  and  created  divisions  and  discord  at  the 
north.  Some,  especially  the  excitable,  sympathized 
with  the  editor  of  the  Liberator,  and,  admiring  his 
boldness,  became  at  once  equally  bold  and -denuncia 
tor  y  ;  while  Bothers,  who,  for  aught  that  appears,  were 
as  much  opposed  to  slavery  in  principle,  could  not 
believe  that  such  a  mode  of  treating  the  subject  was 
best,  nor  that  the  doctrines  of  Mr.  Garrison  were  all 
sound. 

The  differences  of  opinion,  on  this  great  subject, 
existing  among  northern  men,  seemed  to  grow  out 
of  a  difference  in  temperament.  Some  men  are 
naturally  more  conservative  than  others,  and  are  slow 
to  fall  in  with  new  measures ;  while  others  are  quick 
to  speak  and  act.  There  have  been  these  two  classes 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  155 

of  men  in  every  community,  in  all  ages ;  and  when 
any  subject  has  greatly  excited  the  public  mind, 
these  have  arrayed  themselves  against  each  other. 
When  one  is  for  war,  the  other  is  for  peace. 

In  January,  1832,  the  New  England  Anti-slavery 
Society  was  formed.  Up  to  that  time,  the  mass  of 
the  people  at  the  north  had  taken  very  little  interest 
in  the  subject  of  slavery,  and  probably  were  not  very 
well  informed  in  relation  to  it.  In  the  first  report 
of  the  society  it  was  said,  "  Many  persons,  of  good 
information  on  other  subjects,  could  not  even  guess 
the  number  of  the  slave  population ;  others  were 
hardly  able  to  designate  between  the  slave  and  free 
states ; "  others  seemed  not  aware  of  the  fact,  that 
slavery  was  in  any  sense  maintained  by  the  govern 
ment  of  the  United  States;  and  "others  possessed 
merely  a  general  statistical  knowledge,  but  had  never 
traced  the  pernicious  effects  of  slavery  upon  the 
prosperity  or  happiness  of  the  slave  states." 

It  was  near  two  years  before  the  agitation  of  the 
subject  at  the  north  produced  much  excitement  at 
the  south.  In  1832,  the  legislature  of  Virginia  was 
called  to  consider  the  expediency  of  passing  a  law 
for  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery ;  and  though  no 
law  was  passed,  it  appeared  from  the  discussion  and 
vote,  that  the  state  was  nearly  ready  for  it,  —  much 
nearer,  to  all  human  appearance,  than  they  have  been 
since. 

In  1831,  the  subject  of  calling  a  convention  to 
alter  the  constitution,  by  inserting  a  clause  providing 


156  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

for  the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery,  was  agitated  by 
the  legislature  of  Kentucky.  The  bill  was  finally  lost 
in  the  Senate  by  a  tied  vote.  In  1833,  the  synod  of 
Kentucky  discussed,  but  did  not  adopt,  the  resolution, 
"that  slavery,  as  it  exists  in  our  bounds,  is  a  great 
moral  evil,  and  inconsistent  with  the  word  of  God, 
and  that  ministers  who  hold  slaves  should  instruct 
them  in  the  knowledge  of  the  gospel."  In  1835, 
the  synod  published,  in  a  pamphlet  of  sixty-four 
pages,  a  plan  for  gradual  emancipation ;  but  the 
abolition  excitement  reached  the  state  about  that 
time,  and  nothing  was  done.  In  1848,  a  proposal 
was  made  to  call  a  convention  to  amend  the  consti 
tution.  The  friends  of  emancipation  hoped  to  obtain 
the  insertion  of  an  article  in  the  constitution  in  favor 
of  the  abolition  of  slavery.  The  number  of  eman 
cipationists  in  the  convention  was  too  small  to  effect 
their  object.  They  held  the  balance  of  power  be 
tween  the  two  political  parties,  and  if  they  could  not 
do  the  good  they  would,  they  could  prevent  some 
evil. 

In  1833,  the  resistance  of  the  slave  power  at  the 
south  began  to  manifest  itself  against  the  movements 
of  abolitionists.  Many  men  at  the  south  regretted 
this  ruffling  of  the  waters,  through  an  apprehension 
that  it  would  remove  far  from  them  the  day  of  their 
deliverance  from  what  was  regarded  by  them  as  a 
great  moral  and  political  evil.  In  May  of  this  year, 
a  gentleman  in  North  Carolina  wrote  to  the  editor 
of  the  Boston  Courier,  to  know  how  extensively  the 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  157 

sentiments  of  the  Liberator  were  adopted  at  the 
north,  what  was  the  character  of  the  men  embracing 
those  views,  and  what  were  their  designs.  The  fol 
lowing  extract  from  that  letter  will  show  the  state 
of  feeling  which  then  existed  :  — 

"  The  moment  that  interference  with  the  condition 
of  onr  slaves  is  seriously  attempted  by  any  consider 
able  party  in  the  non-slaveholding  states,  that  mo 
ment  onr  Union  is  at  an  end.  Sooner  than  suffer  the 
abolitionists  to  carry  into  execution  their  plans,  I 
would  go  for  a  dissolution  of  the  Union,  much  as  I 
love  it.  I  pledge  myself  for  the  accuracy  of  the 
opinion,  that  not  even  an  attempt  to  settle  a  question 
growing  out  of  slavery  would  be  made  on  the  floor 
of  Congress." 

In  January,  1833,  the  first  report  of  the  New  Eng 
land  Anti-slavery  Society  was  presented,  a  considerable 
part  of  which  was  taken  up  in  severely  castigating  and 
denouncing  the  Colonization  Society.  It  endeavored 
to  show  that  its  chief  object  was  to  remove  the  free 
negroes  from  the  south,  so  as  to  make  slavery  more 
permanent  ;  and  that  if  the  removal  of  slaves  was  its 
honest  intention,  it  could  never  be  done.  They 
never  could  be-  all  colonized  in  Africa.  While  the 
abolitionists  at  the  north  condemned  the  society  for 
seeking  to  remove  only  free  negroes,  the  friends  of 
slavery  a,t  the  south  condemned  it  for  seeking  to 
induce  men  to  emancipate  their  slaves,  that  they 
might  be  sent  to  Liberia. 

.The  developments  of  feeling  on   the  subject  of 

14 


158  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

slavery,    since    then,    have    been    so   numerous    and 
rapid,  that  I  can  only  glance  at  a  few  of  them. 

October  2,  1833,  a  meeting  was  called  at  Clinton 
Hall,  city  of  New  York,  to  form  an  anti-slavery 
society.  Long  before  the  hour  arrived,  a  vast  assem 
blage  of  people  collected  in  the  streets  about  the 
building,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  formation 
of  a  society.  The  trustees  closed  the  hall,  and  re 
fused  to  open  it.  In  the  crowd  were  seen  many  dis 
tinguished  persons  and  men  of  influence.  The  mob 
organized  in  the  street,  and  passed  sundry  pro-slavery 
resolutions.  In  the  mean  time,  the  friends  of  abolition 
convened  at  another  place,  and  organized  a  society. 
In  December  of  the  same  year,  an  anti-slavery  soci 
ety  was  organized  in  Philadelphia. 

In  1834,  George  Thompson,  of  England,  a  gifted 
speaker,  and  an  earnest  abolitionist,  visited  this  coun 
try,  which  helped  to  increase  the  excitement.  In  the 
early  part  of  this  year,  the  students  of  Lane  Theo 
logical  Seminary  discussed  the  question  of  immedi 
ate  emancipation,  and  the  insufficiency  of  the  Col 
onization  Society  to  free  the  country  from  the  curse 
of  slavery.  They  also  began  to  act  on  the  principle 
that  "  all  men  are  equal."  The  young  gentlemen 
rode  and  walked  with  colored  ladies,  and  received 
and  returned  calls  from  colored  gentlemen  and  ladies. 
The  faculty  of  the  institution  adopted  a  code  of  by 
laws,  prohibiting  them  from  devoting  time  to  the  dis 
cussion  of  subjects  and  to  a  course  of  action  that 
drew  them  away  from  their  studies.  It  produced  a 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  159 

great  excitement,  and  most  of  the  students  left  the 
institution. 

During  this  year,  Miss  Prudence  Crandall,  of  Can 
terbury,  Connecticut,  opened  a  boarding-school  in 
that  village  for  colored  misses.  She  had  a  perfect 
right  to  do  so  ;  but  the  people  of  Canterbury  were 
greatly  enraged  j  a  town  meeting  was  called,  and  the 
result  was,  that  the  selectmen  commenced  a  prose 
cution,  and  Miss  Crandall  was  found  guilty  of  having 
violated  the  laws  of  the  state,  which  unrighteous 
decision  drew  down  upon  all  concerned  in  the  matter 
the  merited  rebuke  of  good  people. 

In  July  of  this  year,  James  G.  Birney,  of  Alabama, 
then  an  agent  of  the  Colonization  Society,  became  a 
convert  to  anti-slavery  principles,  and  published  an 
able  and  candid  letter  on  the  subject.  In  October, 
there  was  a  riot  in  Philadelphia,  which  continued 
three  successive  nights.  About  forty  houses  were 
destroyed  which  were  occupied  by  colored  people. 

The  doctrine  of  the  amalgamation  of  the  white 
and  black  races  was  talked  about.  Dinner  parties 
and  tea  parties  were  made,  to  which  whites  and 
blacks  were  invited.  In  some  churches,  negroes 
were  seated  in  the  same  slips  with  whites,  and  an 
attempt  was  made  to  break  down  caste,  and  to  elevate 
the  colored  people,  by  introducing  them  into  circles 
of  white  people  of  the  same  degree  of  refinement 
and  intelligence. 

In  1835,  there  was  a  riot  in  New  York,  occasioned 
by  reports  that  certain  individuals  of  wealth  and 


160  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

respectability  associated  with  colored  people  on  terms 
of  equality.  It  commenced  at  an  anti-slavery  meet 
ing  in  Chatham  Street  chapel,  which  was  broken  up, 
and  many  persons  injured.  The  house  of  a  dis 
tinguished  citizen  was  assailed,  broken  into  in  the 
absence  of  the  family,  and  the  furniture  very  much 
damaged. 

In  July,  Amos  Dresser,  one  of  the  students  who 
left  Lane  Seminary,  went  to  Kentucky  to  obtain  sub 
scribers  for  the  Cottage  Bible.  The  committee  of 
vigilance,  having  discovered  in  his  box  of  books 
some  anti-slavery  papers,  used  for  packing,  arrested 
him,  and  condemned  him  to  be  whipped,  twenty-five 
lashes  on  the  naked  back.  The  order  was  executed. 

In  1836,  Birney's  printing  press  was  destroyed  by 
a  mob  in  Cincinnati  ;  and  in  1837,  Lovejoy's  press 
was  destroyed  at  Alton,  Illinois,  and  he  himself  shot 
down  by  the  mob. 

The  abolition  society,  up  to  this  time,  embraced 
many  of  the  best  and  strongest  men  in  New  Eng 
land  ;  but  many  were  driven  by  the  excitement  to 
the  use  of  such  denunciatory  language,  to  the  con 
demnation  of  ministers  and  churches,  and  to  such 
errors  of  doctrine,  that  the  considerate  and  rational 
anti-slavery  men  could  no  longer  fellowship  them. 
A  separation  took  place  in  1840,  and  since  then  there 
have  been  two  anti-slavery  societies.  At  the  head 
of  one  are  such  men  as  Garrison,  Wendell  Phillips, 
Stephen  Foster,  &c.,  and  such  women  as  Abby  Kel- 
ley  and  Lucy  Stone  ;  at  the  head  of  the  other  are 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  161 

Lewis  Tappan  and  Joshua  Leavitt,  and,  I  may  add, 
most  of  the  people  in  the  free  states  are  with  them 
in  sentiment,  if  not  in  action. 

In  June,  1839,  the  Amistad,  a  Spanish  vessel, 
sailed  from  Havana  for  the  city  of  Principe,  having 
on  board  fifty-three  slaves,  who  rose  in  the  night, 
and  murdered  the  captain  and  a  part  of  the  crew, 
preserving  two  Spaniards,  their  owners,  whom 
they  compelled  to  turn  the  ship  towards  Africa. 
Under  the  pretence  of  going  to  Africa,  they  sailed 
for  North  America,  and  landed  at  New  London.  The 
management  of  this  affair,  the  trial  of  the  slaves, 
their  instruction,  and  final  transportation  to  Africa, 
accompanied  by  two  missionaries,  engrossed  the 
attention  of  the  leading  abolitionists  for  a  long  time. 

In  1834,  numerous  petitions  were  presented  to 
Congress  on  the  subject  of  abolition.  Southern 
members  were  determined  to  prevent  the  discussion 
of  the  subject  on  the  floor  of  Congress.  The  peti 
tions  were  laid  upon  the  table  by  a  major  vote,  with 
out  being  read.  The  more  Congress  opposed  the 
receiving  of  such  petitions,  the  more  numerous  they 
became.  In  1835,  a  rule  was  adopted  prohibiting 
any  one  from  saying  any  thing  on  this  subject.  This 
aroused  the  fears  of  many  northern  members,  who 
said  the  right  of  petition  was  in  danger.  John  Q,. 
Adams  opposed  the  rule,  and  manfully  defended  the 
right  of  petition.  He  was  always  furnished  with  a 
sufficient  number  to  be  able  to  present  quite  a  pack 
age  every  week.  There  was  often  some  peculiarity 
14* 


162  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

in  some  of  the  petitions,  that  required  a  few  words 
of  explanation,  which  was  often  a  stirring  anti-slavery 
speech.  In  1840,  the  rule  was  made  still  more  strin 
gent.  It  prohibited  the  receiving  of  such  petitions. 
This  aroused  the  anti-slavery  feeling  still  more.  Pe 
titions  poured  in  from  all  parts  of  the  free  states, 
and  Mr.  Adams  found  occasion  for  saying  something 
which  was  offensive  to  southern  ears.  He  was  finally 
censured  by  the  House,  but  it  availed  nothing.  He 
pursued  the  tenor  of  his  way.  Mr.  Giddings,  of 
Ohio,  was  expelled  ;  but  his  constituents  sent  him 
back.  In  1844,  the  opposition  was  forced  to  yield  so 
far  as  to  receive  petitions  and  hear  discussions. 

The  subject  of  slavery  has  become  at  length  the 
all-absorbing  topic.  California,  in  1849,  adopted  a 
state  constitution,  and  applied  for  admission  as  a  free 
state.  The  opposition  was  strong,  and  the  leading 
men,  north  and  south,  have  spoken  for  and  against 
slavery. 

I  have  passed  over  many  facts  and  events  which  to 
many  may  seem  entitled  to  a  place  in  this  narrative, 
because  it  would  extend  this  section  beyond  the  limits 
I  had  prescribed. 

I  might  speak  of  the  action  of  churches  and  eccle 
siastical  bodies,  of  the  agitation  of  this  subject  in 
the  meetings  of  the  American  Board  of  Commission 
ers  for  Foreign  Missions,  of  the  withdrawal  of  some, 
and  the  formation  of  a  new  missionary  society  in 
1841,  called  the  Union  Missionary  Society.  I  might 
also  speak  of  the  rise  arid  progress  of  the  Free  Soil 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  163 

party,  in  1848,  of  the  Wilrnot  Proviso,  which  opposes 
the  organization  of  any  new  state  or  territory  that 
does  not  exclude  slavery,  and  of  the  excitement  in 
Congress  in  1850.  Most  of  these  topics  are  too 
recent  to  be  chronicled  as  matters  of  history. 


SECTION  3.     Anti- Masonry. 

I  SHALL  preface  the  history  of  this  reform  by  one 
or  two  extracts  from  the  writings  of  freemasons 
themselves,  exhibiting  their  views  of  the  character 
and  power  of  the  institution. 

In  the  introduction  to  a  volume  on  masonry,  pub 
lished  in  New  York,  in  1827,  and  written  by  a  mas 
ter  mason,  it  is  said  there  were  then  60,000  masons 
in  the  United  States.  "  Let  freemasonry,"  says 
the  author,  "  be  what  it  may,  it  evidently  has  exten 
sive  influence  —  a  powerful  sway  in  this  republic, 
strictly  combining  a  great  body  of  active  members 
of  the  community  in  one  secret  fraternity,  teaching 
them  its  own  highly-valued  lessons,  and  enabling 
them  to  act  without  the  responibilities  attached  to 
the  independent  yeomanry  of  our  country." 

In  June,  1825,  an  address  was  delivered  before  a 
lodge  in  New  London,  Connecticut,  by  W.  F. 
Brainerd,  in  which  he  says,  "  What  is  masonry 
now  ?  It  is  powerful.  It  comprises  men  of  rank, 
wealth,  office,  and  talent,  in  power  and  out  of  power, 
and  that  in  almost  every  place  where  power  is  impor- 


164  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

tant.  It  comprises,  in  large  numbers  from  all  classes, 
active  men,  united  together,  and  capable  of  being 
directed  by  the  efforts  of  others,  so  as  to  have  the 
force  of  concert  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
They  are  distributed,  too,  with  the  means  of  knowing 
each  other,  of  keeping  secret,  and  of  cooperating  in 
the  pulpit,  in  the  legislative  hall,  on  the  bench,  in 
every  gathering  of  business,  in  every  enterprise  of 
government,  in  every  domestic  circle,  in  peace  and  in 
war,  among  enemies  and  friends,  and  in  one  place  as 
well  as  in  another.  So  powerful  is  it  at  this  time, 
that  it  fears  nothing  from  violence,  either  public  or 
private,  for  it  has  every  means  to  learn  it  in  season 
to  counteract,  defeat,  and  punish  it." 

This  is  a  remarkable  announcement,  and  it  is  not 
strange  that  republicans  were  alarmed,  when  told  of 
the  existence  of  this  secret  power. 

In  August,  1826,  it  was  known  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  Batavia,  New  York,  that  William  Morgan, 
an  inhabitant  of  that  place,  and  a  freemason,  was 
preparing  for  publication  a  book,  in  which  the  obli 
gations  and  secret  proceedings  of  masonic  lodges 
were  to  be  divulged.  Some  members  of  the  frater 
nity  became  excited  and  alarmed,  and  endeavored  to 
dissuade  him  from  his  purpose.  Their  efforts  being 
vain,  a  conspiracy  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
arresting  the  work.  September  10,  Morgan  was 
seized  and  carried  to  Canandaigua,  on  the  pretence 
that  he  had  committed  theft.  He  was  committed  to 
jail,  and  on  the  evening  of  the  12th  was  discharged 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  165 

by  the  interposition  of  some  of  the  conspirators,  but 
was  immediately  retaken  and  conveyed  to  Fort  Ni 
agara,  at  the  mouth  of  Niagara  River.  Prom  all  the 
evidence  that  has  been  collected  respecting  the  dispo 
sition  that  was  finally  made  of  him,  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  during  the  night  of  September  19,  or  20, 
1826,  he  was  taken  from  the  fort  by  masons,  and 
murdered,  and  his  body  sunk  in  Lake  Ontario  or 
Niagara  River. 

This  outrage  upon  the  liberty  of  a  fellow-citizen, 
and  contempt  of  the  laws  of  the  land,  from  the  pro 
tection  of  which  he  had  been  torn  away,  roused  the 
indignation  of  the  community  in  the  midst  of  which 
the  offence  had  been  committed.  Information  was 
demanded  of  those  who  were  supposed  to  know,  but 
not  obtained.  Search  was  made  for  the  body,  but  it 
could  not  be  found.  The  excitement  became  in 
tense,  and  spread  over  all  that  region.  The  book,  in 
the  mean  time,  was  published,  and  tended  to  increase 
the  excitement.  The  whole  masonic  fraternity  were 
regarded  as  in  some  sense  implicated  in  the  transac 
tion.  The  murder  of  Morgan  was  considered  the 
natural  consequence  of  the  discipline  of  the  masonic 
institution.  Men  looked  with  alarm  upon  the  influ 
ence  of  a  secret  society  that  could  violate  the  laws 
of  the  land,  and  screen  themselves  from  punishment. 

Investigations  were  made.  Some  were  accused 
and  brought  before  tribunals  of  justice,  and  acquitted 
for  want  of  evidence.  The  measures  of  those  who 
sought  to  discover  the  perpetrators  of  the  foul  deed 


166  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

were  embarassed,  it  was  thought,  by  the  influence  of 
the  fraternity.  The  laws  were  relaxed,  and  the  min 
isters  of  justice  lingered  in  their  course,  and  the  pub 
lic  press  was  awed  into  silence.  A  committee, 
appointed  by  citizens  in  Western  New  York,  spent 
six  months  in  endeavors  to  ferret  out  the  murderers 
of  Morgan,  and  published  all  they  could  learn  in  refer 
ence  to  the  whole  matter,  in  a  pamphlet  that  was 
scattered  broadcast  over  the  whole  land. 

So  deep  and  strong  was  the  current  of  feeling 
which  these  disclosures  produced  against  masonry, 
that  the  people  in  that  region  resolved  to  seek  redress 
through  the  ballot-box,  and  that  they  would  give 
their  votes  for  no  mason  to  any  office.  Conventions 
were  called,  and  newspapers  established  for  the  advo 
cacy  of  the  cause. 

As  early  as  1828,  the  anti-masonic  feeling  had 
become  strong  in  all  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States. 
In  February  of  that  year,  a  lodge  at  Le  Roy,  New 
York,  influenced  by  public  sentiment,  renounced  all 
connection  with  the  fraternity,  and  published  the 
secrets  of  the  institution.  Soon  after  this,  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  New  York  legislature,  authorizing 
the  appointment  of  a  special  counsel  to  investigate 
the  whole  matter,  and  Daniel  Mosely,  Esq.  received 
the  appointment.  He  devoted  his  whole  time  to  it  for 
a  year.  One  man,  who  was  supposed  to  be  impli 
cated  in  the  abduction  of  Morgan,  fled  to  Europt, 
and  another  to  Arkansas.  More  than  twenty  persons 
were  indicted ;  but  the  prosecutor  could  obtain  no 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  167 

conviction.  Previous  to  1829,  more  than  400  masons 
in  the  state  of  New  York  renounced  all  connection 
with  masonry,  and  by  their  testimony  the  truthful 
ness  of  Morgan's  disclosures  was  confirmed. 

At  the  commencement  of  1827,  there  were  only 
two  newspapers  in  the  land  that  had  the  moral  cour 
age  to  speak  boldly  against  the  masonic  institution  ; 
but  within  two  years  from  that  time,  there  were 
thirty  anti-masonic  papers  in  the  state  of  New  York. 
Anti-masonic  sermons  were  preached  from  many  pul 
pits.  Lecturers  traversed  the  country.  County  and 
state  conventions  were  holden,  and  county  and  state 
officers  nominated.  In  1830,  a  national  convention 
was  holden  at  Philadelphia,  and  in  1831,  another, 
which  nominated  the  Hon.  William  Wirt  as  the  anti- 
masonic  candidate  for  president  of  the  United  States. 
He  received  the  electoral  vote  of  Vermont,  and  one 
seventh  of  the  voters  in  Connecticut  cast  their  votes 
for  that  ticket.  He  received  a  very  respectable 
minority  vote  in  several  other  states.  Many  towns 
elected  anti-masonic  town  officers,  and  sent  to  the 
legislature  anti-masonic  representatives. 

In  Massachusetts,  in  1832,  John  Q,.  Adarns  was 
the  anti-masonic  candidate  for  governor.  Petitions 
were  presented  to  legislatures,  praying  that  the 
charters  might  be  taken  from  the  lodges.  The 
committee  to  which  these  petitions  were  referred, 
in  Massachusetts,  reported  a  bill  requiring  all  lodges 
to  make  an  annual  report  of  the  number  of  members, 
their  funds,  and  all  their  proceedings.  The  bill  was 


r? 


168  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

lost.  Such  a  bill  passed  the  legislature  of  Rhode 
Island,  and  the  Grand  Lodge  of  that  state  surrendered 
its  charter,  rather  than  comply  with  the  requisition. 

The  excitement  was  at  its  height  about  1834. 
The  number  of  seceding  masons  had  then  become  so 
numerous,  and  so  many  lodges  had  disbanded,  and  so 
few  ventured  to  hold  meetings,  on  account  of  the 
odium  attached  to  the  institution,  that  the  object  of 
the  anti-masonic  party  seemed  to  be  gained.  The 
party  continued  its  organization  till  1839.  They 
then  nominated  General  W.  H.  Harrison  as  their 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  who  was  also  nominated 
to  the  same  office  by  the  Whigs,  and  elected.  The 
election  turned  on  other  points,  and  so  anti-masonry 
was  lost  sight  of,  and  the  party  became  extinct. 

This  excitemSnt  and  its  results  showed  the  power 
of  public  opinion  in  a  government  like  ours.  Read 
again  what  Mr.  Brainerd  said  at  New  London,  in 
1825,  about  the  power  of  masonry,  and  consider  how 
soon  it  melted  away  before  the  scorching  heat  of 
public  sentiment.  Lodges,  in  some  places,  continue 
to  meet ;  but  there  is  so  much  odium  against  the 
institution  that  it  cannot  soon,  if  ever,  regain  its 
popularity  and  influence. 

Other  secret  societies  have  grown  up  in  its  stead, 
one  of  which,  the  Independent  Order  of  Odd  Fellows, 
has  many  thousand  members ;  but  if  it  ventures  to 
infringe  upon  the  rights  of  man,  or  uses  its  power  for 
wicked  purposes,  its  days  will  soon  be  numbered. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  169 

SECTION  4.      Prison    Discipline,   Imprisonment  for 
Debt,  and  Houses  of  Reformation. 

IF  no  new  principles  have  been  discovered  in  regard 
to  the  punishment  of  criminals  during  the  period 
under  review,  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  old  ones 
have  been  reduced  to  practice,  and  the  knowledge 
of  them  more  widely  disseminated.  During  the  last 
thirty  years,  the  attention  of  the  civilized  world  has 
been  called  to  the  subject  of  prison  discipline  as  it 
has  not  been  at  any  previous  time. 

There  are  two  extreme  or  ultra  views  that  have 
been  taken  of  this  subject  by  some.  The  first  is, 
that  the  only  end  to  be  answered  by  punishing  the 
guilty  is  to  deter  the  innocent  from  the  commission 
of  crime,  and  to  induce  those  who  have  their  liberty 
to  submit  cheerfully  to  the  laws  of  the  land,  lest  they 
suffer  the  pains  of  imprisonment.  Those  who  favor 
this  view  of  the  subject  are  for  making  the  prisoner 
as  uncomfortable  and  wretched  as  he  can  be,  without 
greatly  impairing  his  health,  in  order  to  deter  others 
from  a  manner  of  life  that  will  result  in  bringing 
them  to  the  same  place  of  torment.  This  theory  is 
more  prevalent  in  Europe  than  in  America.  The 
other  extreme  is,  that  the  sole  object  of  punishment 
is  to  reform  the  prisoner,  and  make  him  a  quiet  and 
peaceable  citizen.  According  to  this  view,  no  more 
pain  should  be  inflicted  than  is  necessary  to  effect 
a  moral  cure.  This  class  of  reformers  would  have 
the  prison  regarded  as  a  moral  hospital,  the  prisoner 
15 


170  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

the  patient,  and  the  turnkey  the  good  Samaritan. 
They  are,  of  course,  opposed  to  capital  punishment. 

Extreme  opinions  on  any  subject  are  usually  false 
and  dangerous.  There  is  reason  to  fear  that  the 
deterrent  principle  will  be  abused,  and  prisons,  in  the 
hands  of  those  who  would  terrify  the  innocent,  will 
become  a  sort  of  inquisition.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  reason  to  fear  that  those  who  regard  a  prison 
as  a  hospital,  by  denuding  punishment  of  its  severity, 
will  render  the  prison  a  desirable  place  for  those  who 
are  without  homes  and  lead  uncomfortable  lives. 
They  will  commit  crimes  for  the  purpose  of  gaining 
admission  to  a  pleasant  and  quiet  home. 

The  more  prevalent  opinion  in  this  country  is  the 
mean  between  these  wide  extremes.  It  makes  the 
object  of  imprisonment  twofold :  to  deter  those 
without  the  prison  walls  from  committing  crimes, 
and  to  reform,  .if  possible,  the  incarcerated.  The 
prison  must  not  seem  to  be  a  desirable  place  to  any 
one  ;  the  prisoner's  condition  must  be  such,  that  he 
will  greatly  prefer  liberty  ;  and  the  influences  brought 
to  bear  upon  him  must  be  such,  that  he  shall,  if 
possible,  be  induced  to  act  on  the  principle  that 
"  honesty  is  the  best  policy." 

The  great  question  that  has  been  agitated  among 
prison  reformers,  for  thirty  years  past,  is,  How  shall 
these  two  ends  of  imprisonment  —  the  deterring  of 
the  innocent  from  the  commission  of  crime,  and  the 
reformation  of  the  guilty  —  be  most  effectually  se 
cured  ?  It  has  been  found  a  somewhat  difficult 
problem  to  solve. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  171 

Previous  to  1820,  prisoners  had  so  much  freedom 
of  intercourse  with  each  other,  especially  in  crowded 
night-rooms,  that  our  prisons  were  really  schools  of 
vice.  Those  who  came  out  of  them,  after  finishing 
their  term  of  service,  were  better  instructed  in  all  the 
mysteries  of  iniquity  than  when  they  entered. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  century,  a  classification 
was  made  of  prisoners  in  some  of  our  prisons,  par 
ticularly  in  Philadelphia.  Those  who  were  commit 
ted  for  minor  offences  were  separated  from  those 
imprisoned  for  more  flagrant  crimes  ;  the  young  were 
not  permitted  to  associate  with  old  and  experienced 
transgressors.  This  was  an  improvement  in  the  right 
direction,  but  not  all  that  was  needed. 

In  1821,  the  solitary  system  was  tried  in  New 
York ;  eighty  criminals  were  confined  in  separate 
cells,  in  absolute  solitude,  having  no  intercourse  with 
their  fellow-prisoners  by  night  or  day,  having  no  em 
ployment,  and  but  a  scanty  supply  of  air,  light,  or 
food.  The  consequence  was,  that  mind  and  body 
were  crushed :  some  died,  while  others  became  in 
sane. 

In  1823-4,  the  Eastern  Penitentiary  of  Pennsyl 
vania  was  erected.  It  was  intended  that  the  convicts 
should  be  confined  in  perfect  solitude,  without  occu 
pation  of  any  sort.  It  was  considered  by  many  such 
an  outrage  upon  humanity,  that  it  must  not  be  tol 
erated.  In  1829,  it  was  so  modified  as  to  consist  of 
solitary  confinement  day  and  night,  with  labor,  and 
instruction  in  morals  and  religion.  The  prisoners 


172  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

never  see  each  other,  and  seldom  any  human  being 
except  an  ovarseer  or  a  teacher.  This  is  called  the 
Pennsylvania,  or  solitary,  system. 

Another  system,  which  is  the  prevalent  one  in  the 
United  States,  is  what  is  called  the  Auburn,  or  silent, 
system.  Criminals  employed  in  the  same  art  or 
trade  work  together  in  the  same  room  during  the 
day,  and  meet  in  the  chapel  for  religious  worship, 
but  are  not  allowed  to  speak  to  each  other.  This 
system  was  adopted  at  Auburn,  New  York,  in  1824, 
and  in  Charlestown  and  Wethersfield  in  1828.  It  is 
decidedly  the  most  popular  system  of  discipline  in 
the  United  States. 

It  is  believed  by  the  defenders  of  the  solitary 
system,  that  their  plan  most  effectually  deters  from 
crime,  and  does  not  injure  the  prisoner's  body  or 
mind  j  but  there  is  no  doubt,  that,  so  far  as  health, 
economy,  and  reformatory  effect  are  concerned,  the 
Auburn  system  is  to  be  preferred. 

A  Prison  Discipline  Society  was  organized  in  Bos 
ton  June  30,  1825.  It  held  its  first  annual  meeting 
June  2,  1826,  and  published  a  report.  It  has  con 
tinued  to  hold  public  meetings  and  publish  annual 
reports  to  the  present  time.  The  object  of  the 
society  is  to  diffuse  information  on  the  subject  of 
prison  discipline,  and  to  advocate  the  best  mode  of 
treating  'prisoners.  The  reports  of  the  society  em 
body  a  vast  amount  of  information  respecting  the 
causes  and  progress  of  crime,  the  condition  of  prisons, 
and  the  success  of  various  kinds  of  treatment  upon 


THE  HALF  CENTUliY. 


173 


health  and  morals.  Rev.  Louis  Dwight  was  appoint 
ed  secretary  of  the  society  at  its  formation,  and  has 
continued  in  that  office  ever  since.  In  the  discharge 
of  his  official  duties,  he  has  visited  most  of  the 
prisons  in  this  country,  and  in  1846  spent  a  few 
months  in  Europe  in  visiting  prisons,  and  in  making 
inquiries  into  the  success  of  their  modes  of  discipline. 
By  the  agency  of  this  society,  the  attention  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States  has  been  aroused  to  the 
subject,  and  the  information  that  was  very  much 
needed  has  been  collected  and  diffused. 

At  the  public  meetings  in  1846  and  1847,  there 
were  some  exciting  discussions  respecting  the  man 
agement  of  the  society's  affairs ;  but  order  and  har 
mony  have  been  restored. 

The  original  work  of  the  society,  the  introduction 
of  a  better  mode  of  prison  discipline,  has  been  ac 
complished  ;  but  the  society  still  find  much  work  to 
perform.  The  secretary  is  now  very  much  occupied 
in  efforts  to  improve  the  structure  of  prisons  and 
almshouses.  The  buildings  are  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  cross,  so  that  a  single  individual  in  the  centre 
room  can  oversee  all  the  rooms  on  that  floor. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  average  mim- 
ber  of  prisoners  annually  received  to  several  prisons, 
for  a  series  of  years  in  the  early  part  of  this  century. 

To  the  state  prison  in  Vt.,   from  1805  to  1820,    32  were  annually  received. 


It  «(  «  ( 
«  ft  (t  t 

N.H., 
Mass., 
N.Y., 

«  1812 
<  1805 
<  1801 

1822,  20 
1820,  93 
1816,  206 

« 
« 
« 

ft  If  It  I 

N.  J., 
Va., 

15* 

'  1800 
'  1800 

1819,  38 
1820,  47 

" 

174  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  average  num 
ber  of  prisoners  annually  received  to  some  of  the 
same  prisons  for  a  series  of  years  at  a  later  date. 

To  the  state  prison  in  N.  II.,  from  1837  to  1847,    21  were  annually  received. 
"         "         "      "Mass.,     "      "  "      101    "  " 

"         "         "  in  Sing  Sing,  N.Y.,  '34  to  '44,  263    "          "  " 

"         "         "      in  N.  J.,  from  1834  to  1844,    65    "  "  " 

«          «  «        «  °y^          ti        (t     «      if        «jg     «  «  « 

It  will  be  seen,  by  comparing  these  statements, 
that  the  increase  of  criminals  is  much  less  than  the 
increase  of  population  in  all  these  states  except  New 
Jersey,  which,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  New 
York  and  Philadelphia,  is  probably  more  infested 
with  criminals  than  it  otherwise  would  be. 

The  state  prison  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  was  built 
in  1805,  and  furnished  with  separate  cells  in  1828. 
Previous  to  1805,  prisoners  were  confined  on  Castle 
Island,  in  Boston  harbor. 

The  prison  at  Wethersfield,  Connecticut,  was  ready 
for  the  reception  of  prisoners  in  1828,  at  which  time 
the  old  Newgate  prison  at  Simsbury  was  abandoned. 

The  state  prison  of  Maine  is  at  Tbomaston,  and 
was  erected  in  1823.  The  prison  of  Vermont  was 
located  at  Windsor,  in  1808,  and  that  of  New  Hamp 
shire  at  Concord,  in  1812. 

The  prison  at  Auburn  was  erected  in  1817,  and 
that  at  Sing  Sing  about  1830. 

The  Eastern  Penitentiary,  at  Philadelphia,  was 
erected  in  1823,  and  the  one  at  Alleghany  city  in 
1827. 

Imprisonment  for    Debt.  —  Between     1820    and 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  175 

1830,  much  was  said  and  written  upon  the  injustice 
of  imprisoning  an  honest  debtor.  It  was  maintained 
that  it  was  wrong  to  punish  a  man  who,  by  an  un 
foreseen  and  unavoidable  calamity,  should  be  reduced 
to  poverty.  The  question  was,  Should  one  who  in 
tended  no  injury  be  treated  as  a  criminal  ?  Cases 
often  occurred  in  Massachusetts,  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century,  of  persons  being  imprisoned  months  for 
a  debt  less  than  five  dollars.  The  laws  of  New 
Hampshire  never  gave  a  creditor  power  to  imprison 
one  unless  he  owed  him  more  than  $13,33.  About 
1830,  the  legislatures  of  several  states,  moved  by  the 
demand  of  the  people,  that  imprisonment  for  debt 
should  be  abolished,  modified  considerably  their  laws 
relative  to  poor  debtors.  Maine  enacted  a  law  abot- 
ishing  the  imprisonment  of  honest  debtors,  and  another 
for  punishing  fraudulent  ones.  If  the  debtor  had  no 
property  except  what  was  exempt  by  law,  he  was  al 
lowed  to  go  before  a  magistrate  and  take  his  oath, 
which  secured  him  from  arrest,  unless  some  one  could 
prove  that  his  testimony  was  false.  It  was  said  at 
the  time,  that  this  law  would  annually  save  one  thou 
sand  persons  from  imprisonment.  The  laws  of  most 
and  perhaps  all  the  states  exempt  honest  debtors  from 
punishment. 

Houses  of  Reformation  for  Juvenile  Delinquents. 
—  This  class  of  institutions  is  for  the  moral  benefit 
of  those  who  are  guilty  of  petty  offences  while  under 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years  of  age.  In  cities  and  large 
towns,  there  is  always  a  considerable  number  of 


176  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

young  persons,  who  are  not  properly  cared  for  by 
their  parents,  and  grow  up  in  ignorance  and  crime. 
It  does  not  seem  proper  to  commit  them  to  jails,  nor 
to  treat  them  like  old  offenders.  If  they  are  impris 
oned,  their  place  of  confinement  should  be  a  sort  of 
moral  hospital,  and  the  end  aimed  at  reformation, 
more  than  punishment.  It  is  more  humane  to  edu 
cate  them,  and  qualify  them  to  earn  their  living  by 
some  honest  occupation. 

The  House  of  Refuge  in  New  York  city  is  of  this 
description  ;  it  was  established  in  1825,  and  receives 
none  but  the  juvenile  delinquents  of  that  city.  It 
has  usually  from  200  to  300,  who  are  trained  to  hab 
its  of  industry,  and  finally  bound  out  as  apprentices. 
Thousands  have  thus  been  rescued  from  a  life  of 
infamy,  and  assisted  in  their  progress  to  virtue  and 
usefulness. 

A  similar  institution  was  opened  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1828,  and  another  at  Boston,  a  few  years  later.  How 
many  cities  have  institutions  of  the  kind,  I  do  not 
know. 

There  is  only  one  state  institution  of  the  kind  in 
the  Union  ;  that  is  at  Westborough,  Massachusetts. 
It  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  juvenile  delin 
quents  November  1,  1848.  It  was  built  at  the  sug 
gestion  of  an  individual  then  unknown,  who  gave 
the  state  $22,500,  on  condition  that  they  would 
establish  and  carry  forward  such  an  institution.  The 
benevolent  donor  died  in  1849,  and  his  acts  of  benefi 
cence  were  then  made  public.  It  was  Hon.  Theo- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  177 

dore  Lyman,  of  Boston.  He  left  for  the  benefit  of 
the  institution,  in  addition  to  what  he  had  previously 
given,  a  legacy  of  $50,000.  Governor  Briggs,  in  his 
annual  message  to  the  legislature,  in  1850,  says, 
" Noble  benefactor!  Ffiend  of  the  young,  of  the 
wayward,  and  the  poor  !  When  the  bloody  laurels 
of  the  warrior  and  destroyer  of  his  race  shall  be 
despised  and  trampled  in  the  dust  by  an  enlightened 
and  Christianized  humanity,  the  names  of  such  bene 
factors  as  Theodore  Lyman  will  be  remembered  and 
revered,  and  the  generation  of  the  poor  will  rise  up 
and  bless  them.''' 

None  are  received  into  this  institution  except  those 
sentenced  by  some  legal  tribunal  for  some  misde 
meanor.  At  the  end  of  the  first  six  months,  it  had 
150  ;  and  in  January,  1850,  there  were  310  juvenile 
delinquents.  Each  one  is  sentenced  for  a  series  of 
years.  The  boys  being,  for  the  most  part,  children 
of  parents  who  fail  to  govern  and  train  them  properly, 
they  are  taken  away  and  committed  to  the  care  of 
such  teachers  as  the  state  may  direct,  who  will  en 
deavor  to  train  them  up  in  the  way  in  which  they 
should  go. 

In  view  of  the  facts  presented  in  this  section,  it  is 
evident  there  have  been  great  improvements  in  the 
classification  and  in  the  physical  and  moral  treatment 
of  prisoners.  It  is  thought  by  some  that  crime  has 
increased,  and  by  others  that  it  has  not.  The  ques 
tion  is  one  of  difficult  solution  ;  but  it  is  my  belief 
that  crime  is  diminishing.  The  arguments  by  which 


178  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

I  come  to  this  conclusion  take  into  consideration  the 
increase  of  population,  and,  above  all,  the  enlightened 
state  of  the  public  mind,  which  sees  things  to  be 
heinous  offences  which  were  formerly  regarded  as 
trivial.  • 


SECTION  5.     Peace  Societies. 

THE  first  effective  movement  in  favor  of  peace  in 
this  country,  or  any  other,  was  made  by  Rev.  Noah 
Worcester,  D.  D.,  of  Brighton.  Massachusetts,  in  1814. 
On  Christmas  day  of  that  year,  he  published  an 
anonymous  pamphlet,  entitled,  A  Solemn  Review  of 
the  Custom  of  War.  It  was  just  at  the  close  of  the 
war  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
and  just  before  the  great  battle  of  Waterloo,  which 
closed  a  thirty  years'  war  in  Europe.  The  whole 
civilized  world  were  sighing  for  peace  j  they  were 
deploring  the  desolating  influence  of  the  war  spirit, 
and  were  praying  that  the  gates  of  the  temple  of  Ja 
nus  might  be  closed.  Essays  had  been  published 
and  sermons  preached  on  the  evils  of  war,  and  the 
necessity  of  pilrsuing  the  things  that  make  for  peace, 
before  Dr.  Worcester  published  his  tract;  but  they 
produced  very  little  effect.  The  Solemn  Review 
appeared  at  the  right  time  ;  the  world  was  waiting 
for  a  message  from  the  Prince  of  Peace.  In  six 
months  it  passed  through  five  editions  in  this  coun 
try ;  in  1815,  it  was  republished  in  England,  and 
translated  and  published  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 


THE   HALF   CENTURY. 


During  the  year  1815,  four  numbers  of  the  Friend 
of  Peace,  by  Philo  Pacificus,  were  published,  en 
forcing  and  defending  the  principles  inculcated  in  the 
Solemn  Review.  In  January,  1816,  the  Massachusetts 
Peace  Society  was  formed  in  Boston.  Dr.  Worces 
ter  was  its  corresponding  secretary,  and  the  Friend 
of  Peace,  of  which  he  was  the  author,  became  the 
organ  of  the  society.  Dr.  Worcester  continued  the 
secretary  of  this  society  and  the  editor  of  its  quar 
terly  magazine  till  1828,  when,  by  reason  of  his  feeble 
health,  he  was  obliged  to  resign  his  office,  and  retire 
from  his  onerous  labors.  He  died  at  Brighton,  Octo 
ber  31,  1837,  aged  79.  In  1817  and  1818,  peace 
societies  were  organized  in  Maine,  Rhode  Island, 
New  York,  Ohio,  and  in  London.  In  1818,  the  Lon 
don  society  commenced  a  monthly  journal  of  32 
pages,  called  the  Herald  of  Peace. 

The  Solemn  Review  recommended  the  formation 
of  such  societies,  as  the  best  means  of  embodying 
public  sentiment  in  favor  of  peace,  and  as  an  organi 
zation  for  the  diffusion  of  information  on  the  subject. 
The  Massachusetts  Peace  Society,  in  two  years, 
printed  about  6,000  different  publications,  and  scat- 
1  tered  them  throughout  the  United  States,  Canada, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick  :  they  sent  them 
to  the  reigning  sovereigns  and  influential  men  in 
Europe,  arid  received  from  some  of  them  highly 
encouraging  replies. 

There  was  opposition  from  some  sources  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe.  The  London  Christian  Ob- 


180  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

server  published  a  severe  criticism  of  the  Solemn 
Review,  denying  its  main  positions.  Some  clergy 
men  in  this  country  felt  themselves  injured  by  the 
insinuation  that  they  had  overlooked  the  fact  that  the 
Bible  inculcates  peace  on  earth  and  good  will  among 
men. 

In  May,  1828,  a  national  Peace  Society  was  organ 
ized  at  New  York,  of  which  William  Ladd,  Esq.,  of 
Minot,  Maine,  was  the  corresponding  secretary.  The 
society  was  called  the  American  Peace  Society ;  it 
commenced  a  periodical  of  24  pages,  12rno.,  the  Har 
binger  of  Peace,  which  was  edited  by  the  secretary, 
and  published  monthly.  In  1831,  it  was  enlarged, 
and  published  once  in  two  months,  and  called  the 
Calumet,  of  which  Loring  D.  Dewey,  the  recording 
secretary,  was  the  editor. 

In  1834,  the  Connecticut  Peace  Society  commenced 
the  publication  of  a  periodical,  called  the  Advocate  of 
Peace.  Mr.  William  Watson  was  the  publisher,  who 
kept  at  Hartford  a  depository  of  books  and  tracts  on 
that  subject. 

In  1839,  Boston  became  the  centre  of  the  opera 
tions  of  th%  American  Peace  Society,  at  which  place 
was  commenced  the  publication  of  the  Advocate  of  • 
Peace,  which  is  still  continued.  I  suppose  the  Calu 
met  and  Hartford  Advocate  were  merged  in  this. 
Mr.  Ladd  was  chosen  president  of  the  society,  and 
was  its  general  agent  to  the  time  of  his  death,  which 
occurred  April  9,  1841.  His  age  was  63.  He  was 
deeply  interested  in  the  cause  of  peace,  and  devoted 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  181 

to  its  interests  much  of  his  time.  The  American 
Peace  Society  have  erected  a  monument  to  his 
memory  in  the  graveyard  at  Portsmouth,  New 
Hampshire,  where  his  remains  were  interred. 

Rev.  George  C.  Beckwith  became  the  correspond 
ing  secretary  of  the  society  about  1839,  and  is  so 
still. 

Among  the  means  used  by  the  American  Peace 
Society  to  promote  its  philanthropic  purpose  may  be 
mentioned  the  obtaining  of  pledges  from  clergymen 
to  preach  on  the  subject  of  peace  at  least  once  in 
a  year.  It  adopted  this  plan  about  1833,  and  in 
three  years  secured  pledges  from  more  than  400 
ministers  of  different  denominations. 

About  1832,  a  premium  of  $500  was  offered  for 
the  best  essay  on  a  congress  of  nations,  or  the  settle 
ment  of  difficulties  between  nations  by  arbitration. 
The  essays  were  to  be  from  60  to  150  pages  in 
length.  In  1833,  seven  were  received  j  the  report 
of  the  committee  was,  that  they  were  so  nearly 
equal  in  merit  that  it  was  difficult  to  decide  between 
them.  They  recommended  that  five  of  them  be 
accepted,  and  the  premium  be  divided  among  their 
authors.  This  the  society  refused  to  do.  The  prob 
ability  is,  that  the  committee  did  not,  and  could  not, 
give  the  manuscripts  so  thorough  an  examination  as 
would  warrant  them  in  awarding  the  premium  to  any 
one  of  the  number.  It  required  more  time  to  read 
a  thousand  pages  of  manuscript  than  men  of  business 
can  afford.  The  society,  however,  afterwards  offered 
16 


182  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

a  premium  of  $1,000;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
difficulty  of  finding  men  competent  to  decide,  and 
willing  to  read  such  a  pile  of  manuscript,  no  premium 
was  ever  awarded,  though  a  large  octavo  was  pub 
lished. 

Mr.  Ladd  paid  $12  a  year  to  several  colleges  for 
the  best  essay  on  peace,  that  should  be  furnished  by 
a  student  of  the  college.  Some  other  friends  of 
peace  did  the  same. 

In  June,  1843,  a  World's  Peace  Convention  was 
holden  in  London.  Fifteen  individuals  from  the 
United  States  attended  that  convention. 

The  peace  societies  of  this  country  and  of  England 
have  done  very  much  to  counteract  the  war  spirit, 
and  to  teach  the  civilized  world  that  "  wisdom  is 
better  than  weapons  of  war."  It  is  believed  that,  in 
consequence  of  the  information  that  has  been  diffused 
by  these  societies,  a  war  between  this  country  and 
England  was  prevented  when  there  was  so  much 
excitement  in  regard  to  the  north-eastern  boundary, 
the  McLeod  case,  and  the  Oregon  question. 

These  societies,  however,  did  not  prevent  the 
Mexican  war,  which  has  furnished  a  multitude  of 
facts,  which  the  friends  of  peace  are  converting  into 
strong  arguments  in  favor  of  peace.  The  society,  in 
1847,  offered  a  premium  for  the  best  history  of  that 
war  that  should  be  furnished  in  four  months  after 
peace  should  be  declared.  In  the  winter  of  1849, 
the  premium  of  $500  was  awarded  to  Rev.  A.  A. 
Livermore,  of  Keene,  N.  H.  His  review  formed 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  183 

a  volume  of  300  pages,  12mo.,  but  was  not  published 
for  several  months  afterwards,  in  consequence  of  the 
author's  absence  from  the  country.  The  review  of 
Judge  Jay,  who  was  one  of  the  competitors,  was 
published  immediately.  Though  it  did  not  take  the 
premium,  it  was  deemed  too  valuable  to  be  thrown 
aside ;  it  has  had  an  extensive  sale. 

In  August,  1849,  another  peace  convention  was 
holden  at  Paris.  Ten  delegates  from  this  country 
were  present.  The  meeting  is  represented  as  one  of 
thrilling  interest.  A  third  convention  was  holden  in 
Germany  in  1850. 

It  is  hoped  the  day  is  dawning  when  wars  shall 
cease  from  under  the  whole  heaven. 


SECTION  6.      The  Sabbath,  and  the  Means  used  to 
promote  its   Observance. 

SAYS  Blackstone,  "  A  corruption  of  morals  usually 
follows  a  profanation  of  the  Sabbath."  The  early 
settlers  of  New  England  were  strict  in  their  obser 
vance  of  the  Lord's  day ;  their  descendants  have  de 
parted  from  the  old  paths.  Not  only  Christians,  but 
many  not  connected  with  churches,  became  long 
since  alarmed  in  view  of  the  degeneracy  of  the  age  ; 
and,  during  the  last  thirty  years,  much  has  been  done 
to  promote  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath. 

A  sketch  of  the  action  of  Congress  on  this  subject 
stands  intimately  connected  with  all  other  movements 


184  THE    HALF  CENTUKY. 

ill  reference  to  this  matter.  By  a  law  passed  in  1810, 
the  postmaster-general  considered  himself  bound  to 
compel  the  deputy  postmasters,  at  offices  where  a 
mail  arrived  on  the  Sabbath,  to  keep  open  on  that  day, 
for  the  delivery  of  letters.  It  seems,  however,  that 
he  had  some  scruples  of  conscience  on  the  subject, 
for  he  directed  the  carriers  of  the  mail  to  pass  as 
quietly  as  possible  through  the  country,  "  without 
announcing  their  arrival  or  departure  by  the  sounding 
of  horns  or  trumpets,  or  in  any  other  way  calculated 
to  draw  off  the  attention  of  the  people  from  their  de 
votions."  Postmasters  were  required  to  keep  their 
offices  open  only  one  hour  after  the  arrival  of  the 
mail  on  the  Sabbath ;  but  if  it  arrived  during  public 
worship,  that  hour  should  be  immediately  after. 

At  the  next  session  of  Congress,  the  people  from 
different  parts  of  the  country  sent  up  remonstrances, 
first,  against  the  carrying  the  mail  on  the  Sabbath, 
and,  secondly,  against  requiring  postmasters  to  open 
their  offices  for  the  delivery  of  letters  on  that  day. 
These  remonstrances  were  referred  to  the  proper  com 
mittee,  who  reported  in  favor  of  carrying  the  mail 
and  opening  offices.  In  1812,  1815,  and  1817,  similar 
remonstrances  called  forth  similar  reports.  In  1812 
and  1815,  the  reason  assigned  for  not  repealing  the 
law  was,  the  peculiar  state  of  the  country,  it  being 
engaged  in  war ;  and  it  was  deemed  a  work  of  neces 
sity.  The  report  of  1815  was  presented  before  the 
news  of  peace  arrived.  Mr.  Meigs,  the  postmaster- 
general,  assigned  as  a  reason  for  carrying  the  mails 


THE  HALF   CENTURY.  185 

on  the  Sabbath  the  astounding  argument,  that,  if  they 
were  not,  "  they  would  be  delayed  one  seventh  of  the 
time;"  a  member  of  Congress  said  "public  conve 
nience  required  it."  In  1817,  the  postmaster-general 
assigned  the  following  remarkable  reason  for  carrying 
mails  on  the  Sabbath  :  "  The  contents  of  the  mail," 
he  said,  "  are  not  confined  to  public  despatches,  nor 
to  subjects  of  private  business  or  pleasure.  The  same 
mail  which  transports  such  matters,  conveys  supplies 
to  those  in  want,,  consolation  to  the  afflicted,  and,  to 
the  pious,  evangelical  correspondence  ;  and  thus,  per 
forming  works  of  charity,  it  may  be  regarded  as  doing 
good  on  the  Sabbath  day."  During  this  year,  the 
committee  reported,  that  while  it  was  necessary  to 
transport  mails  on  the  Sabbath,  it  was  not  needful 
that  offices  should  be  kept  open  for  the  delivery  of 
letters.  Here  the  matter  rested  until  1825,  when  a 
law  was  passed  more  rigid  than  any  that  had  previ 
ously  been  enacted.  It  required  that  all  post-offices 
at  which  mails  arrived  on  the  Sabbath  should  be 
kept  open  during  the  whole  of  that  day.  In  1829, 
petitions  were  presented  from  all  parts  of  the  Union, 
praying  for  the  repeal  of  that  law.  In  March,  1830, 
Richard  M.  Johnson  presented  his  famous  report, 
drawn  forth  by  the  petitions  of  1829,  respecting  which 
it  has  been  said,  "  Satan  never  accomplished  a  greater 
temporary  victory  over  the  Sabbath,  through  any 
agency,  in  any  country,  than  was  accomplished  by 
this  report,  if  we  except  the  abolition  of  the  Sabbath 
in  France,  during  the  reign  of  infidelity."  A  minority 
16* 


186  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

of  the  committee  presented,  at  the  same  time,  an  able 
report,  advocating  better  views  ;  but  Johnson's  sent  a 
thrill  of  horror  through  the  land.  It  called  forth  a 
fuller  expression  of  public  opinion  than  we  ever  had 
before  on  this  subject,  from  the  press,  and  pulpit,  and 
legislative  halls.  Laws  requiring  the  transportation 
of  the  mail  on  the  Sabbath  were  regarded  by  many 
as  unconstitutional.  Almost  every  state  in  the  Union 
prohibits  its  citizens  from  keeping  their  shops  open, 
and  from  engaging  in  secular  labors  on  the  Sabbath. 
The  laws  of  Congress,  it  was  said,  conflicted  with  the 
rights  of  the  states. 

Since  then  the  number  of  Sabbath  mails  has  been 
gradually  diminishing.  The  construction  of  railroads 
has  had,  and  is  having,  a  salutary  influence.  They 
carry  the  mails ;  and,  as  the  number  of  passengers  on 
that  day,  over  many  of  the  roads,  is  very  small,  they 
cannot  carry  the  mail  on  the  Sabbath  without  extra 
pay.  Economy,  therefore,  has  forced  the  government 
to  discontinue  very  extensively  the  Sabbath  mail; 
and  in  1848,  the  postmaster-general  signified  his 
readiness  to  discontinue  it,  whenever  and  wherever  it 
was  the  wish  of  the  people  along  the  route  that  it 
should  be  done.  Since  1830,  the  friends  of  the  Sab 
bath  have  been  gaining  ground.  Richard  M.  John 
son's  report,  over  which  infidelity  rejoiced,  defeated 
its  own  object.  It  awakened  a  deeper  interest  in  the 
subject  than  was  ever  felt  before.  Associations  were 
formed,  and  conventions  held,  and  means  used  to 
promote  a  better  observance  of  the  Lord's  day. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  187 

About  1825,  the  question  began  to  be  discussed, 
whether  ministers,  in  going  to  another  parish  to  ex 
change  on  Sabbath  morning,  did  not  violate  the  law 
of  the  Sabbath.  Some  spoke  of  it  as  a  crying  sin, 
and  said  it  was  wrong  for  clergymen  in  cities  to  walk 
to  any  other  church  than  their  own  on  that  day. 

The  erratic  abolitionists  of  New  England,  about 
1840,  began  to  hold  Anti-Sabbath  conventions. 
They  have  holden  several,  at  which  many  things 
shocking  to  the  moral  sense  of  all  respectable  men 
have  been  uttered.  Some  of  them  ended  in  a  row  ; 
they  were  not  able  to  adopt  any  resolutions  which 
they  were  willing  to  publish  to  the  world  and  defend. 

In  1842,  1843,  and  1844,  fifteen  general  Sabbath 
conventions  were  holden  in  the  United  States ;  seven 
of  them  were  state  conventions,  and  attended  by  from 
100  to  500  delegates.  One  of  them  was  a  national 
convention,  holden  at  Baltimore,  November  27  and 
28,  1844,  at  which  1700  delegates  were  present  from 
11  different  states.  John  duincy  Adams  presided, 
and,  in  allusion  to  the  remark  of  a  foreigner,  that 
"our  observance  of  the  Sabbath  is  truly  national  and 
American,"  said  that  "  we  will  gladly  accept  it  as  our 
distinction,  and  wear  it  as  the  fairest  of  all  that  grace 
our  escutcheon,  that  we  preeminently  honor  the  Sab 
bath  and  the  Sabbath's  Lord." 

In  1844,  the  American  and  Foreign  Sabbath 
Union  held  its  first  annual  meeting,  of  which  Rev. 
Justin  Edwards,  D.  D.,  was,  and  still  is,  secretary. 
By  the  munificence  of  individuals,  he  has  been  sus- 


188  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

tained,  and  has  travelled  through  all  the  states,  ad 
dressed  legislatures,  ecclesiastical  bodies,  and  large 
assemblies,  in  most  of  the  cities,  on  the  importance  of 
the  Sabbath.  He  has  also  collected  a  vast  treasury 
of  facts,  and  has  published  at  the  end  of  each  year  a 
permanent  Document  for  general  circulation.  They 
have  been  republished  by  the  American  Tract  Socie 
ty,  and  by  them  scattered  through  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land. 

In  1800,  good  men  slumbered  over  the  desecration 
of  the  Sabbath.  They  have  since  awoke,  and  are 
now  doing  much  to  promote  its  sanctity. 


SECTION  7.     Moral  Reform. 

THIS  phrase  has,  within  a  few  years,  acquired  a  sort 
of  technical  meaning.  It  is  used  to  denote  the  ref 
ormation  of  those  who  violate  the  seventh  com 
mandment,  and  also  to  designate  the  means  used  to 
prevent  its  violation,  or  to  promote  chastity. 

The  first  movement  of  the  kind  was  made  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  in  the  autumn  of  1830,  by  John 
McDowall,  who  left  the  theological  seminary  at 
Princeton  at  that  time.  A  society  was  organized 
for  the  moral  and  religious  improvement  of  the  Five 
Points.  He  visited  the  wretched  families  in  that 
neighborhood,  and  preached  from  house  to  house, 
against  the  abominations  that  existed  in  that  vicinity. 
An  asylum  was  provided,  called  the  Magdalen  Asylum, 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  189 

to  be  a  place  of  refuge  for  females  who  desired  to 
reform  and  return  to  virtuous  life. 

About  the  commencement  of  1832,  he  published 
his  Magdalen  Report,  in  which  he  gave  somewhat  in 
detail  his  discoveries  respecting  the  prevalence  of 
this  sin,  and  signified  that  he  knew  the  names  of 
many  persons  in  the  higher  walks  of  life  who  were 
in  the  habit  of  visiting  these  dens  of  iniquity.  The 
fears  of  this  class  of  persons  were  awakened,  lest 
Me  Do  wall,  in  his  zeal,  should  speak  their  names  in 
the  public  ear,  and  their  fair  fame  should  be  sullied. 
The  report  produced  a  great  excitement,  and  even 
good  men  and  clergymen  thought  him  impudent. 
It  was  said  that  his  report  communicated  infor 
mation  to  the  vicious,  and  was  a  kind  of  directory  to 
houses  of  ill  fame. 

In  January,  1833,  he  commenced  the  publication 
of  a  journal,  called  McDowali's  Journal,  in  which  he 
minutely  detailed  the  enormities  of  this  vice.  It 
was  presented  by  the  Grand  Jury  of  New  York  as  a 
nuisance,  and  a  great  excitement  was  produced. 
Some  condemned  his  course,  and  others  approved. 

He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1832,  and  was  un 
tiring  in  his  efforts  to  do  good.  He  was  opposed  and 
persecuted  by  some  of  the  friends  of  virtue,  who, 
listening  to  the  reports  that  were  circulated,  no  doubt 
believed  that  he  was  less  benevolent  than  he  professed 
to  be,  and  that  he  applied  to  his  own  use  money 
that  was  designed  for  the  use  of  the  society.  These 
suspicions  were,  undoubtedly,  without  foundation. 


190  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

It  appears  that  he  lived  in  extreme  poverty,  expend 
ing  all  he  received  to  promote  the  cause  to  which  he 
had  devoted  himself. 

In  May,  1834,  the  American  Female  Moral  Reform 
Society  was  organized,  which  commenced  the  publi 
cation  of  the  Advocate  of  Moral  Reform,  at  which 
time  McDowall  relinquished  his  Journal. 

In  the  early  part  of  1836,  he  was  summoned  to 
appear  before  the  third  presbytery  of  New  York,  to 
answer  to  charges  preferred  against  him  ;  and  in  April, 
he  was  suspended  from  the  exercise  of  all  the  func 
tions  of  the  gospel  ministry.  The  presbytery  con 
sisted  of  forty  members,  but  his  suspension  was 
decided  by  nine  votes.  He  appealed  to  the  synod, 
who  reversed  the  decision!  Shortly  after,  near  the 
close  of  1836,  he  sickened  and  died  in  consequence 
of  his  excessive  labors  and  sufferings.  In  1838,  a 
memoir  of  400  pages  was  published,  in  which  he  is 
styled  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of  virtue. 

He  seems  to  have  been  the  man  raised  up,  in  the 
providence  of  God,  to  direct  public  attention  to  this 
vice.  He  accomplished  the  object,  though  he  fell  a 
sacrifice  to  the  cause.  He  was  a  good  man,  though 
earnest,  ardent,  and  often  imprudent. 

The  American  Female  Moral  Reform  Society 
learned  wisdom  from  his  labors,  and  have  pursued 
a  course  that  has  met  the  approval  of  all  who  have 
become  acquainted  with  their  operations.  Their 
paper  is  ably  conducted,  and  has  a  very  extensive 
circulation.  They  are  doing  a  good  work,  in  which 
we  bid  them  '-'God  speed." 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  191 


CHAPTER   Y. 

IMPROVEMENTS  IN  THE    MEANS  OF    INTERCOMMUNI 
CATION. 

No  improvements,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view, 
are  more  valuable  to  a  civilized  people  than  those 
which  facilitate  intercourse  between  places  remote 
from  each  other.  Nor  is  there  any  thing  that  more 
certainly  indicates  the  progress  of  a  people  in  the 
arts  and  sciences,  and  the  prosperity  of  a  nation, 
than  such  improvements.  Until  there  is  a  cheap  and 
easy  mode  of  transporting  the  produce  of  the  coun 
try  to  a  good  market,  the  lands  in  the  interior  will 
be  of  little  value,  the  settlers  on  them  few,  and  those 
not  the  most  enterprising. 

I  may  safely  say,  that  the  improvements  made  in 
the  means  of  intercourse  between  large  cities  and 
places  far  distant  from  them,  during  the  last  fifty 
years,  are  far  more  valuable  than  any  made  during 
1,800  years  previous.  They  consist  chiefly  in  the 
opening  of  canals,  in  the  application  of  steam  to  the 
propulsion  of  boats  and  ships,  and  in  the  construction^ 
of  railroads.  Towns  that  were  so  remote  from 
market,  that  the  cost  of  transporting  the  produce 
exceeded  the  price  for  which  it  could  be  sold,  have, 
in  effect,  been  brought  so  much  nearer,  that  the  mar 
ket  price  exceeds  the  cost  of  tilling  the  land  and 
conveying  its  produce  to  market.  Lands  that  were 


192  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

once  worthless  have  become  valuable.  Towns  and 
cities  that  were  separated  by  an  almost  impassable 
gulf,  have  been  brought  into  proximity  to  each  other, 
and  people  that  were  strangers  have  become  neigh 
bors,  and  are  bound  together  by  many  endearing  ties. 
The  civilization  arid  intelligence  that  were  formerly 
concentrated  in  cities  and  large  towns,  are  now  more 
equally  diffused  over  the  country.  Those  who  live 
one,  and  even  two  hundred  miles  from  the  city,  may 
obtain  the  daily  papers  on  the  day  of  their  publica 
tion  ;  and  the  merchant  thus  far  from  the  market,  if 
he  find  himself  destitute  of  any  article,  can  have  it 
ready  for  his  customers  in  forty-eight  hours.  If  the 
facilities  for  intercourse  between  distant  places,  that 
now  exist,  had  been  predicted  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  the  foreteller  would  have  been 
regarded  as  a  wild  enthusiast,  having  more  imagina 
tion  than  common  sense. 

I  propose,  in  this  chapter,  to  give  a  brief  outline 
of  the  improvements  in  the  modes  of  travelling,  of 
conveying  goods  to  and  from  the  markets,  and  of 
communicating  intelligence,  that  have  been  made 
during  the  last  half  century. 


SECTION  1.      Canals. 

CANALS  are  artificial  channels  for  water,  cut  for  the 
purpose  of  inland  navigation.  They  are  not  a  mod 
ern  invention.  But  very  few  were  opened  in  this 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  193 

country  prior  to  1800.  The  probability  is,  that  the 
number  of  them  will  not  in  future  be  very  much 
increased ;  so  that  the  last  fifty  years  may  be  re 
garded  as  the  era  of  canals  in  this  country.  They 
will  be  superseded  by  railroads,  which  can  be  used 
all  the  year,  the  first  cost  of  which  is  not  very 
much  greater,  and  they  can  more  easily  be  kept  in 
repair. 

The  following  table  comprises  a  list  of  some  of 
the  longest  canals  that  have  been  completed  in  the 
United  States  since  1801  : 

When         Miles 
Names.  What  they  connect.  opened,   in  length. 

Santee,  S.  C.  Santee  River  and  Charleston.  1802.  22 
Middlesex,  Mass.  Merrimac  River  and  Boston.  1808.  27. 
Champlain,  X.  Y.  Hudson  River  and  Lake  Champlain.  1824.  63. 
Hudson  and  Erie,  N.  Y.  Hudson  River  and  Lake  Erie.  1825.  363. 
Union,  Pa.  Schuylkill  and  Susquehanna.  1827.  80. 
Syracuse  and  Oswego.  Erie  Canal  and  Lake  Ontario.  1828.  38. 
Geneva  and  Montezuma.  Erie  Canal  and  Lake  Seneca.  "  21. 
Delaware  and  Hudson.  Rivers  of  those  names.  "  109. 
Delaware  Division  of  Penn 
sylvania  Canal.  Bristol  and  Easton.  1830.  101. 
Central  Division.  Columbia  and  Hollydaysburg.  "  172. 
Western  Division.  Johnstown  and  Pittsburg.  "  105. 
Susquehanna.  Duncan's  Island  and  Northumberland.  1831.  39. 
Northern  Branch.  Northumberland  and  Lackawanna.  1830.  73. 
Western  Branch.  Northumberland  and  Dunnstown.  1830.  72. 
Ohio  Canal.  Lake  Erie  and  Ohio.  1832.  309." 
Miami  Canal.  Cincinnati  and  Wabash.  178. 
Wabash  and  Erie.  Lake  Erie  and  Wabash. 
Illinois  Canal.  Lake  Michigan  and  Illinois.  1847.  100. 

The  Erie  Canal  is  the  longest  in  the  United  States 
and  in  the  world,  except  one  in  China.  The  state 
of  New  York  has  more  miles  of  canals  than  any 
other  state  in  the  Union,  and  they  produce  a  largei 
income  than  any  others.  Dewitt  Clinton,  though 
17 


194  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

not  their  projector,  was  their  firm  advocate,  and 
probably  did  more  to  induce  the  state  to  undertake 
and  complete  these  great  works  than  any  other 
man. 

The  stupendous  canals  that  have  been  opened, 
chiefly  during  the  last  25  years,  enable  vessels  adapted 
to  inland  navigation  to  pass  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  without  encountering 
the  dangers  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Goods  may  be 
sent  by  water  up  the  Hudson,  through  the  Champlain 
Canal  and  Lake,  to  Montreal ;  or  through  the  Erie 
Canal  and  Lake,  and  Ohio  Canal  and  River,  to  New 
Orleans,  or  to  St.  Anthony's  Falls. 

The  disadvantages  of  canals  are,  that  in  the  North 
ern  and  Middle  States  they  cannot  be  used  more  than 
half  the  year;  the  motion  is  slow,  not  exceeding 
three  miles  an  hour.  But  there  is  no  way  in  which 
heavy  goods  can  be  transported  to  the  interior  of  a 
country  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  or  by  which  the  produce 
of  a  country  can,  with  so  little  expense,  be  sent  to 
market. 


SECTION  2.      Steamboats  and  Steamships. 

A  VERY  great  change  has  taken  place  in  the  navi 
gation  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  of  the  ocean  even,  since 
the  invention  of  boats  propelled  by  steam.  Formerly, 
the  Connecticut,  from  Hartford  to  the  Sound,  and  the 
Hudson,  from  New  York  to  Albany,  were  navigated 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  195 

only  by  sloops,  which  were  often  a  week  in  ascend 
ing  the  former,  and  two  weeks  in  ascending  the 
latter. 

Some  experiments  were  made  in  Europe  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  to  see  if  a  vessel 
could  be  moved  by  steam ;  but  none  of  them  were 
successful.  Our  countryman,  Robert  Fulton,  was 
then  in  Europe,  and  assisted  in  these  experiments. 
He  returned  to  America  in  1805,  and  by  the  aid  and 
patronage  he  received  from  Chancellor  Livingston, 
who  had  faith  in  the  success  of  the  undertaking,  he 
began  to  build  a  boat  to  run  upon  the  Hudson  River. 
Livingston  applied  to  the  legislature  of  New  York, 
and  obtained  for  Fulton  the  exclusive  right  of  navi 
gating  that  river  by  steam,  provided  that  in  one  year 
from  that  time  he  should  put  upon  the  river  a  boat 
that  should  move  at  not  less  than  four  miles  an  hour. 
It  was  regarded  by  the  legislature,  however,  as  a  vis 
ionary  scheme,  and  the  right  was  granted  without 
any  debate.  This  right,  however,  proved  of  little 
use  to  him,  for  his  exclusive  privilege  was  limited  to 
that  river,  and  even  that  was  infringed  upon  so  exten 
sively,  that  he  never  realized  enough  for  his  discov 
ery  to  pay  him  for  the  expense  of  carrying  it  into 
operation.  He  made  his  first  trip  to  Albany,  150 
miles,  in  August,  1807,  in  32  hours,  and  returned  in 
30.  The  success  of  the  experiment  was  so  satis 
factory,  that  he  was  urged  to  make  regular  trips 
during  the  remainder  of  the  season,  and  did  so. 

The  following  interesting  letter  was  published  in 


196  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Hunt's  Magazine,  in  1846,  describing  the  first  trip  to 
Albany  :  — 

"Judge  Wilson  resided  in  the  city  of  New  York 
when  Fulton  was  building  the  boat,  and  frequently 
saw  her  on  the  stocks.  She  was  a  queer-looking 
craft,  and  excited  much  attention,  and  not  a  little 
ridicule.  When  she  was  launched,  and  the  steam 
engine  placed  in  her,  that  also  was  looked  upon  of  a 
piece  with  the  boat  built  to  float  it.  A  few  had  seen 
one  at  work  raising  the  Manhattan  water  into  the 
reservoir  back  of  the  almshouse  ;  but  to  the  people 
at  large  the  whole  thing  was  a  hidden  mystery. 
Curiosity  was  greatly  excited.  When  it  was  an 
nounced  in  the  New  York  papers  that  the  boat  would 
start  from  the  foot  of  Cortland  Street  at  six  and  a 
half  o'clock  on  Friday  morning,  the  4th  of  August, 
and  take  passengers  to  Albany,  there  was  a  broad 
smile  on  every  face,  as  the  inquiry  was  made,  if  any 
one  would  be  fool  enough  to  go  ?  A  friend  of  the 
writer,  hearing  that  he  intended  to  venture,  accosted 
him  in  the  street :  *  John,  will  thee  risk  thy  life  in 
such  a  concern  ?  I  tell  thee  she  is  the  most  fearful 
wild  fowl  living,  and  thy  father  ought  to  restrain 
thee.'  When  Friday  morning  came,  the  wharves, 
piers,  housetops,  and  every  '  coigne  de  vantage '  from 
which  a  sight  could  be  obtained,  were  filled  with 
spectators. 

"  There  were  twelve  berths,  and  every  one  was 
taken  through  to  Albany.  The  fare  was  seven  dol 
lars.  All  the  machinery  was  uncovered  and  exposed 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  197 

to  view.  The  periphery  of  the  balance-wheels,  of 
cast  iron,  some  four  or  more  inches  square,  ran  just 
clear  of  the  water.  There  were  no  outside  guards, 
the  balance-wheels  being  supported  by  their  respec 
tive  shafts,  which  projected  over  the  side  of  the  boat. 
The  forward  part  was  covered  by  a  deck,  which 
afforded  shelter  to  the  hands.  The  after  part  was 
fitted  up,  in  a  rough  manner,  for  passengers.  The 
entrance  into  the  cabin  was  from  the  stern,  in  front 
of  the  steersman,  who  worked  a  tiller,  as  in  an  ordi 
nary  sloop.  Black  smoke  issued  from  the  chimney ; 
steam  issued  from  every  ill-fitted  valve  and  crev 
ice  of  the  engine.  Fulton  himself  was  there.  His 
remarkably  clear  and  sharp  voice  was  heard  above  the 
hum  of  the  multitude  and  the  noise  of  the  engine  ; 
his  step  was  confident  and  decided ;  he  heeded  not 
the  fearfulness,  doubts,  or  sarcasm  of  those  by  whom 
he  was  surrounded.  The  whole  scene  combined  had 
in  it  an  individuality  and  an  interest  which  comes 
but  once,  and  is  remembered  forever. 

"  When  every  thing  was  ready,  the  engine  was  set 
in  motion,  and  the  boat  moved  steadily  but  slowly 
from  the  wharf:  as  she  turned  up  the  river,  and  was 
fairly  under  weigh,  there  arose  such  a  huzza  as  ten 
thousand  throats  never  gave  before.  The  passengers 
returned  the  cheer,  but  Fulton  stood  upon  the  deck, 
his  eyes  flashing  with  an  unusual  brilliancy,  as  he 
surveyed  the  crowd.  He  felt  that  the  magic  wand 
of  success  was  waving  over  him,  and  he  was  silent. 

"  When  coming  up  Haverstraw  Bay,  a  man  in  a 
17* 


198  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

x 

skiff  lay  waiting  for  us.  His  appearance  indicated  a 
miller  ;  the  paddle-wheels  had  very  naturally  attracted 
his  attention  ;  he  asked  permission  to  come  on  board. 
Fulton  ordered  a  line  to  be  thrown  to  him,  and  he 
was  drawn  alongside ;  he  said  he  *  did  not  know 
about  a  mill  going  up  stream,  arid  came  to  inquire 
about  it.'  One  of  the  passengers,  an  Irishman,  seeing 
through  the  simple-minded  miller  at  a  glance,  became 
his  cicerone  ;  showed  him  all  the  machinery,  and  con 
trivances  by  which  one  wheel  could  be  thrown  out 
of  gear,  when  the  mill  was  required  to  come  about. 
After  finishing  the  examination,  said  he,  <  That  will 
do  ;  now  show  me  the  mill-stones.'  '  O,'  said  the 
other,  '  that  is  a  secret  which  the  master?  pointing  to 
Fulton,  'has  not  told  us  yet;  but  when  we  come 
back  from  Albany  with  a  load  of  corn,  then,  if  you 
come  on  board,  you'll  see  the  meal  fly.'  Dennis  kept 
his  countenance,  and  the  miller  left. 

"  As  we  passed  West  Point,  the  whole  garrison  was 
out,  and  cheered  us  as  we  passed.  At  Newburg,  it 
seemed  as  if  all  Orange  county  was  collected  there ; 
the  whole  side-hill  city  seemed  animated  with  life. 
Every  sail-boat  and  water-craft  was  out ;  the  ferry 
boat  from  Fishkill  was  filled  with  ladies.  Fulton 
was  engaged  in  seeing  a  passenger  landed,  and  did 
not  observe  the  boat  until  she  bore  up  nearly  along 
side.  The  flapping  of  a  sail  arrested  his  attention, 
and,  as  he  turned,  the  waving  of  so  many  handker 
chiefs,  and  the  smiles  of  bright  and  happy  faces, 
struck  him  with  surprise ;  he  raised  his  hat,  and 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  199 

exclaimed,  '  That  is  the  finest  sight  we  have  seen 
yet.' 

"  Fulton,  in  his  letter  to  Barlow,  (on  the  22d  of 
August,  1807,)  adds  to  these  reminiscences  —  *  My 
steamboat  voyage  to  Albany  and  back  has  turned  out 
rather  more  favorable  than  I  had  calculated.  The 
distance  to  Albany  is  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  I 
ran  up  in  thirty-two  hours,  and  down  in  thirty.  The 
latter  is  just  five  miles  an  hour.  I  had  a  light 
breeze  against  me  the  whole  way,  going  and  coming, 
so  that  no  use  was  made  of  my  sails,  and  this  voyage 
has  been  performed  wholly  by  the  power  of  the 
steam  engine.  I  overtook  many  sloops  and  schooners 
beating  to  the  windward,  and  passed  them  as  if  they 
had  been  at  anchor.'  ' 

During  the  following  winter,  he  built  a  new  boat, 
finished  with  much  elegance,  and  commenced  regular 
trips  again  in  June,  1808,  since  which  time  steam 
boats  have  been  constantly  plying  between  New 
York  and  Albany.  Fulton  established  the  custom 
of  starting  at  the  very  minute  he  had  said  the  boat 
would  leave  the  wharf,  whether  all  those  who  had 
engaged  a  passage  Avere  on  board  or  not.  It  produced 
some  excitement  for  a  time.  He  was  accused  of 
being  unaccommodating  ;  he  persevered,  however,  and 
was  able  to  teach  the  travelling  community  a  valua 
ble  lesson  on  the  importance  of  punctuality.  The 
custom  is  still  continued,  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States.  If  a  boat  any  where  on  the  Atlantic  coast  is 
advertised  to  sail  at  seven,  a  man  is  sure  of  losing  his 


200  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

passage  if  he  arrives  at  the  wharf  five  minutes  past 
seven.  It  would  be  a  great  favor  to  travellers  on  the 
western  rivers,  if  the  same  punctuality  was  observed 
by  the  commanders  of  those  boats. 

The  people  of  Albany,  the  merchants  along  the 
river,  and  the  owners  of  sloops  were  exceedingly 
hostile  for  a  time  to  this  new  mode  of  travelling. 
Merchants  feared  their  best  customers  would  leave 
them,  and  do  their  trading  in  New  York.  The 
owners  of  sloops  foresaw  that  their  business  would 
be  greatly  diminished,  and  that  their  prices  would  be 
reduced.  Their  days  were  numbered,  their  golden 
harvest  had  been  gathered,  and  in  future  they  could 
be  only  gleaners  in  the  field  of  enterprise. 

A  man  by  the  name  of  Stevens  built  a  boat,  and 
launched  it  upon  the  Hudson,  soon  after  Fulton  had 
taken  possession  of  the  waters.  Finding  himself 
excluded,  he  proceeded  with  it  by  sea  to  the  Dela 
ware  Bay,  and  with  it  navigated  the  Delaware  River. 
Fulton  died  in  1815,  aged  fifty.  At  that  time,  the 
machinery  was  so  much  improved  that  boats  ran 
nine  miles  an  hour.  Soon  after  his  death,  one  of  his 
boats  commenced  running  between  New  York  and 
Providence,  and  in  1818,  a  steamship  ran  between 
New  York  and  New  Orleans.  The  number  of  boats 
on  the  Hudson  increased  rapidly.  Before  1830,  there 
were  twenty,  some  of  which  were  properly  called 
"floating  palaces,"  and  performed  the  trip  in  thirteen 
hours. 

The    first  steamboat   that   ran    upon  the   western 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  201 

waters  was  built  at  Pittsburg,  in  1811.  It  was  de 
signed  for  the  Mississippi.  Four  more  were  launched 
in  1814,  and  three  in  1815.  As  late  as  1816,  it  was 
supposed  the  Ohio  River  could  not  be  navigated  by 
steamboats,  on  account  of  the  falls  at  Louisville, 
and  bars  and  shoals  elsewhere.  It  was  said  the  diffi 
culties  of  the  Lower  Mississippi  might  be  conquered  ; 
but  the  people  residing  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio 
must  wait  for  some  more  happy  "  century  of  inven 
tions." 

In  1817,  the  enterprising  Captain  Shreve  made  a 
trip  from  New  Orleans  to  Louisville,  1,275  miles,  in 
twenty-five  days.  The  event  was  celebrated  by  a 
public  dinner  'to  the  daring  individual  who  had 
achieved  so  great  an  exploit.  Previous  to  that,  an 
ordinary  passage  by  barges  and  sail-boats  occupied 
three  months.  A  revolution  in  western  commerce 
was  at  once  effected,  and  now  packages  of  goods 
are  shipped  from  New  York,  via  New  Orleans,  to  St. 
Louis  or  Cincinnati,  for  one  cent  per  pound.  In  1827, 
the  improvements  in  western  boats  were  such,  that 
the  Tecumseh  performed  a  trip  from  New  Orleans  to 
Louisville  in  eight  days  and  two  hours. 

In  1820,  the  first  steamer  ascended  the  Arkansas 
River;  and  in  1831,  six  boats  ran  constantly  between 
St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans,  six  from  the  latter  city 
to  Louisville,  one  to  Cincinnati,  and  two  up  the  Mis 
souri,  four  hundred  miles,  to  Fort  Leavenworth. 

The  whole  number  of  boats  on  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributaries,  in  1818,  was  23. 


202  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


In  1819,  it  was  27. 

1822,  «      89. 

1831,  «    198. 

1834,  "    230. 


In  1840,  it  was  286. 

1842,  "        450. 

1843,  «        642. 
1848,  "     1,300. 


The  tonnage  of  all  these  boats  is  estimated  at 
260,000  tons,  and  their  net  value  $18,000,000. 
No  one,  until  he  has  seen  for  himself,  can  have  any 
definite  idea  of  the  number  and  extent  of  the  navi 
gable  rivers  in  the  Yalley  of  the  Mississippi,  nor  of 
the  amount  of  business  and  travel  on  these  waters. 

A  steamer  may  leave  Brownsville,  on  the  Monon- 
gahela,  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  and  pursue  a  long 
and  weary  way  of  2,000  miles  to  New  Orleans,  and 
ascend  from  thence  the  same  distance  to  the  Falls  of 
St.  Anthony.  Journeys  from  Pittsburg  to  New  Or 
leans,  on  horseback,  used  to  be  performed  in  about 
three  months ;  now,  by  steamers,  in  two  weeks. 
When  boats  first  commenced  running  from  New  Or 
leans  to  Louisville,  the  fare  was  from  $125  to  $150, 
and  cheerfully  paid.  When  the  fare  was  so  reduced 
that  a  man  could  go  from  Pittsburg  to  the  Crescent 
City  for  $100,  it  was  thought  to  be  very  wonderful. 
Now  the  fare,  including  board,  is,  I  think,  not  more 
than  $25. 

Lake  Erie  was  first  navigated  by  steam  in  1818, 
by  a  boat  built  at  Black  Rock,  which  had  the  sig 
nificant  name  of  Walk-in-the-water.  When  she  made 
her  first  trip,  the  novelty  of  the  sight  excited  great 
curiosity.  She  was  lost  in  1822,  but  was  immedi 
ately  succeeded  by  the  Superior.  In  1829,  there 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  203 

were  seven  steamboats  on  Lake  Erie,  and  sixteen  in 
1833. 

In  what  year  the  first  boat  passed  through  the 
upper  lakes,  I  am  not  informed ;  though  it  appears 
that  2  steamers  arrived  at  Mihvaukie  in  1835, 
19  in  1836,  arid  182  in  1839.  They  must  have 
commenced  running  between  Buffalo  and  Chicago 
somewhat  earlier.  The  navigation  of  the  great  lakes 
by  steamboats  has  proved  a  great  blessing  to  the 
North-western  States.  Their  market  was  New  Or 
leans,  now  New  York  and  Boston.  The  flour  and 
wheat  dealers  in  Chicago  can  choose  between  the 
great  commercial  cities,  and  send  to  which  they 
please,  or  to  all* 

Steam  navigation  has  made  the  Western  States  ac 
cessible  to  eastern  people,  and  has  been  the  means  of 
increasing  the  population  of  those  states  rapidly. 

Ocean  Steamers.  —  The  beneficial  results  of  steam 
navigation  on  inland  waters,  and  along  the  coast,  led 
to  the  inquiry,  whether  the  ocean  might  not  be  navi 
gated  with  steamships.  The  opinion,  for  a  long 
time,  prevailed,  that  the  size  of  the  boat,  the  weight 
of  its  machinery,  and  the  great  quantity  of  fuel  that 
would  be  needed  during  the  voyage,  would  render  the 
attempt  hazardous  ;  or,  if  successful,  it  must  be  very 
unprofitable.  At  length  a  company  in  England  pro 
posed  to  try  the  experiment.  The  first  steampacket, 
Sirius,  left  Cork,  April  4,  1838,  and  the  Great  West 
ern  left  Bristol  on  the  8th  of  the  same  month,  and 
both  arrived  safely  in  New  York,  April  23.  "  This 


204  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

event  formed  a  new  era  in  navigation,  and  was  the 
commencement  of  a  new  and  expeditious  mode  of 
intercourse  between  England  and  the  United  States." 
Since  then  steampackets  have  continued  to  run  be 
tween  Liverpool  and  New  York,  leaving  each  place 
on  the  beginning  and  middle  of  each  month.  The 
passage  from  Liverpool  to  New  York  occupies  usually 
about  seventeen  days,  arid  from  New  York  to  Liver 
pool,  about  fifteen. 

In  1840,  the  Cunard  line  of  steamers  commenced 
running  between  Liverpool  and  Boston,  touching  at 
Halifax.  The  first  steamer  of  this  line,  the  Unicorn, 
left  Liverpool  May  16,  and  arrived  in  Boston  June  13. 

The  packets  of  this  line  leave  Liverpool  and  Bos 
ton  on  the  same  days,  twice  each  month.  The  May 
Flower,  in  1620,  was  sixty-five  days  in  its  passage 
from  Portsmouth  to  Cape  Cod.  The  same  voyage  is 
now  made  in  about  ten  days.  The  United  States 
is  in  effect  brought  nearer  to  Europe  than  it  formerly 
was,  and  commerce  and  friendship  between  us  and 
other  nations  is  thereby  promoted. 


SECTION  3.     Railroads. 

RAILROADS  were  first  constructed  in  the  neigh 
borhood  of  some  of  the  collieries  in  England,  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  They  were  composed  en 
tirely  of  wood,  as  were  the  wheels  of  the  cars,  and 
were  drawn  by  horses.  Cast  iron  rails  were  first 
used  in  1767,  and  those  of  malleable  iron  in  1811. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  205 

The  first  railroad  in  the  United  States  was  con 
structed  at  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  to  convey  stone 
from  the  granite  quarries  to  a  shipping  port  on  Ne- 
ponset  River,  a  distance  of  about  four  miles.  It  was 
finished  in  1827. 

The  following  table  contains  a  list  of  the  earliest 
railroads  in  this  country,  and  some  of  the  more  im 
portant  ones : — 

When 

Name.                                           Location.  Length.  Jinithed. 

auincy.  To  Neponset  River.  4,  1827. 

Mauch  Chunk.  To  the  Coal  Mines.  5.  1828. 

Mount  Carbon.                          "            "          "  7£.  1830. 

Little  Schuylkill.                      «           «          "  23.  1831. 

Ponchartrain.  To  New  Orleans.  5.  1831. 

Mohawk  and  Hudson.  Albany  and  Schenectady.  16.  1832. 

Columbia.  To  Philadelphia.  82.  " 

Westchester.  To  Columbia.  9.  " 

Newcastle.  To  Frenchtown,  Del.  16.  " 

South  Carolina.  Charleston  to  Harrisburg.  136.  1833. 

Camden.  Amboy,  N.  J.,  to  Delaware  River.  61.  1832. 

Boston  and  Providence.  To  Providence.  41.  1835. 

Boston  and  Worcester.  To  Worcester.  45.  1835. 

Western.  Worcester  to  Springfield.  54.  1839. 

"  Springfield  to  Albany.  102.  1842. 

Baltimore  and  Ohio.  To  Harper's  Ferry.  86.  1835. 

Between  the  years  1830  and  the  beginning  of 
1848,  more  than  5,000  miles  of  railroad  were  con 
structed  in  the  United  States,  at  an  expense  of 
$120,000,000.  «  This  is  unprecedented  in  the  his 
tory  of  civil  constructions.  It  demonstrates,  better 
than  any  other  fact,  the  gigantic  growth,  the  un 
ceasing  industry,  and  cumulative  power  of  capital 
in  this  new  and  vigorous  nation." 

There  is  a  continuous  line  of  railroad  from  Port 
land,  Maine,  via  Boston  and  Albany,  to  Buffalo,  or 
18 


206  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

from  Portland,  via  Boston,  Springfield,  New  Haven, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  to  Washing 
ton,  D.  C.,  or  to  the  foot  of  the  Alleghanies,  west  of 
Cumberland. 

These  changes  in  the  means  of  locomotion  give  a 
new  impulse  to  the  human  mind,  and  have  opened 
to  poets  and  orators  a  new  field  from  which  to  derive 
figures  for  adorning  our  literature.  We  find  often 
expressions  of  this  sort :  "  The  iron  horse,  whose 
sinews  are  steel,  and  whose  provender  is  fire,  is  off 
for  Washington  or  Buffalo.  His  unceasing  clatter 
echoes  among  our  hills  all  day,  and  his  fiery  train 
illumines  our  valleys  at  night." 

Railroads  to  the  Pacific.  —  Mr.  Whitney,  a  wealthy 
and  enterprising  gentleman  of  New  York,  a  few 
years  since,  conceived  the  plan  of  constructing  a 
railroad  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Columbia  River.  He  surveyed  and  examined  the 
route,  or  so  much  of  it,  at  his  own  expense,  that  he 
was  convinced  it  was  feasible,  and  that,  if  Congress 
would  give  him  a  strip  of  land  ten  miles  wide,  on 
each  side  of  the  contemplated  road,  he  would  carry 
it  through.  A  committee  of  Congress,  in  1847,  re 
ported  in  favor  of  the  project ;  but  the  bill  ivas  finally 
lost,  more,  it  was  thought,  through  the  want  of  a 
sufficient  degree  of  interest  in  the  subject,  than  from 
any  real  objection  to  the  plan.  He  presented  his 
plan  to  the  legislatures  of  several  states,  and  thirteen 
of  them,  in  1848,  passed  resolves  in  favor  of  the 
enterprise 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  207 

In  1849,  Mr.  P.  P.  F.  Degrand  came  before  the 
people  of  the  United  States  with  a  plan  of  a  railroad 
from  St.  Louis  to  San  Francisco,  California.  He 
proposes  that  "  a  company  be  chartered  by  Congress, 
with  a  capital  of  $100,000,000,  and  that  this  com 
pany,  after  having  paid  in  $2,000,000,  have  the  right 
to  borrow  United  States  six  per  cent,  stock,  to  such 
an  amount,  not  exceeding  §98,000,000,  as  may  be 
necessary  to  finish  the  road  and  carry  it  into  full 
operation,  with  a  double  track."  He  proposes,  also, 
that  Congress  give  this  company  a  strip  of  public 
lands,  ten  miles  wide,  on  the  north  side  of  the  road, 
the  land  for  the  bed  of  the  road,  and  the  right  to  take 
from  the  public  lands  such  materials  as  may  be  neces 
sary  to  construct  said  road.  An  application  was 
made  to  Congress,  in  1850,  in  favor  of  this  enter 
prise.  One  of  the  roads  will  undoubtedly  be  con 
structed  before  many  years  shall  elapse.  If  such  a 
road  were  in  operation,  all  the  goods  carried  from 
Europe  to  Eastern  Asia,  and  from  Eastern  Asia  to 
Europe,  would  pass  through  the  United  States, 
making  us  the  carriers  for  all  nations. 

While  these  great  projects  are  maturing,  another 
railroad  is  in  the  actual  process  of  construction  across 
the  isthmus  from  Chagres  to  the  Pacific.  The  esti 
mated  expense  of  this  road  is  §'1,000,000.  The 
books  were  opened  in  New  York,  in  June,  1849,  and 
the  whole  stock  taken  up  in  one  week.  It  is  to  be 
completed  in  1851. 

The  Liverpool  Chronicle,  in  January,  1850,  in  ref- 


208  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

erence  to  these  stupendous  works,  says,  "  The  usual 
channels  of  trade  are  about  being  abandoned.  Com 
merce  always  seeks  the  shortest  route,  and  the 
shortest,  by-and-by,  will  certainly  be  through  North 
America,  from  the  east  to  the  west.  The  states, 
aware  of  this,  are  obtaining  possession,  directly  and 
indirectly,  of  the  land  on  either  side  of  the  proposed 
railways  and  canals,  and  we  are  just  awakening  to  a 
knowledge  of  their  intention.  It  is  not  our  business 
or  our  interest  to  offer  any  interruption  to  the  enter 
prise  of  American  citizens,  or  to  oppose  in  any  way 
the  progress  of  the  republic ;  such  attempts  would 
be  futile  and  disastrous.  We  have  a  deep  interest  in 
her  welfare  ;  she  is  our  best  customer ;  but  our  own 
security  demands  that  we  keep  ahead  of  her  in  gen 
erous  rivalry ;  and  while  she  acquires  greatness,  we 
must  continue  to  become  more  great." 


SECTION  4.     Electro-Magnetic  Telegraph. 

"  TELEGRAPH  "  is  the  name  given  to  a  system  of 
mechanism  used  for  conveying  intelligence  rapidly 
by  means  of  signals.  The  best  in  use,  prior  to  the 
invention  of  the  electro-magnetic  telegraph,  was  one 
invented  by  Colonel  Paisley,  of  France,  in  1822.  It 
consisted  of  upright  posts  of  moderate  height,  having 
two  arms  moving  upon  a  common  pivot,  each  of 
which  could  be  put  in  seven  positions,  and  each  posi 
tion  indicated  a  word,  or  sentence.  The  posts  were 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  209 

placed  from  three  to  five  miles  apart ;  but  each  was  vis 
ible  to  the  nearest  on  either  side.  When  the  arm  of  the 
first  was  put  in  a  given  position,  the  man  at  the  second 
put  his  in  the  same  position,  and  the  third,  fourth, 
&c.,  did  the  same,  and  a  word  was  thus  run  through 
the  line  at  the  rate  of  about  a  mile  in  a  second ;  then 
another  word  was  conveyed  in  the  same  way,  and 
then  another,  and  so  on,  till  the  whole  message  was 
communicated.  It  could  be  used,  of  course,  only 
by  daylight.  There  were  27  of  these  signal- 
posts  between  Calais  and  Paris,  152  miles  j  a  word 
was  conveyed  through  the  line  in  three  minutes,  and 
a  sentence  of  ten  words  in  half  an  hour.  There 
were  80  signal-posts  between  Paris  and  Brest,  325 
miles,  through  which  distance  a  word  was  conveyed 
in  ten  minutes,  and  a  sentence  of  ten  words  in  one 
hour  and  forty  minutes.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that 
this  mode  of  conveying  intelligence  was  very  expen 
sive  :  it  required  more  than  80  men  to  convey  ten 
words  325  miles,  and  kept  them  occupied  one  hour 
and  two  thirds.  And  yet  it  was  deemed  so  important 
to  be  able  to  convey  it  in  this  speedy  manner,  that 
the  government  of  France  supported  them  at  the 
cost  of  $210,000  annually.  England  paid  $15,000 
a  year  to  sustain  72  miles  of  telegraph,  between 
Portsmouth  and  London. 

It  has  therefore,  for  a  long  time,  been  a  desidera 
tum  to  discover  some  method  of  conveying  informa 
tion  accurately,  rapidly,  and  at  a  cheap  rate.    Franklin, 
the  distinguished  electrician,  suggested  the  idea  that, 
18* 


210  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

inasmuch  as  the  electric  fluid  passes  along  wires  of 
any  length  whatever  instantaneously,  it  might  possi 
bly  be  made  the  means  of  conveying  information. 

In  1832,  Professor  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  while  on 
his  way  from  Europe  to  the  United  States,  had  his 
attention  directed  to  this  remark  of  Franklin,  in  con 
versation  with  some  scientific  gentlemen,  who  were 
his  fellow-passengers.  He  determined  to  investigate 
the  matter  thoroughly,  and,  before  he  reached  home, 
had  fixed  upon  the  leading  principles  of  the  discov 
ery.  It  was  based  on  the  two  following  facts :  — 

1.  "  That  a  current  of  electricity  will  pass  to  any 
distance  along  a  conductor  connecting  the  two  poles 
of  a  voltaic   battery,  and  produce  visible  effects  at 
any  desired  points  on  that  conductor. 

2.  "  That  magnetism   is  produced  in  a  piece  of 
soft  iron,  around  which  the  conductor,  in  its  progress, 
is  made  to  pass,  when  the  electric  current  is  permitted 
to  flow,  and  that  the  magnetism  ceases  when  the  cur 
rent  of  electricity  is  prevented  from  flowing." 

Hence,  if  the  end  of  a  soft  iron  lever  be  placed 
beneath  the  iron  to  be  magnetized,  it  can  be  made  to 
rise  and  fall  as  the  electricity  flows,  or  is  interrupted. 
The  other  end  of  the  lever,  having  a  point  in  it,  may 
be  made  to  press  on  a  strip  of  paper  or  not,  at  the 
will  of  the  operator.  This  point  may  be  made  to 
impress  a  dot  or  a  line,  at  pleasure.  A  dot  and  a  line 
may  represent  letters,  and  by  different  combinations 
of  dots  and  lines  any  letter  of  the  alphabet  may  be 
represented.  The  operator  in  one  city  can  make  the 


THE  HALF  CENTUEY.  211 

apparatus  in  another  city,  at  any  distance,  write  what 
he  pleases,  by  breaking  and  closing  the  circuit  at 
longer  or  shorter  intervals. 

In  1838,  Professor  Morse  presented  the  considera 
tion  of  his  discovery  to  Congress,  and  asked  for  aid 
to  enable  him  to  test  the  practicability  of  his  discov 
ery.  He  secured  a  patent  for  his  invention.  The 
committee  of  Congress  reported  a  bill  making  an 
appropriation  of  $30,000  for  the  purpose  for  which  it 
was  asked.  It  being  near  the  close  of  the  session, 
and  Professor  Morse  having  sailed  for  Europe,  to 
secure  patents  there,  the  report  of  the  committee  was 
not  acted  upon.  It  was  brought  before  Congress 
again  in  1842,  and  the  appropriation  voted. 

In  the  spring  of  1844,  the  posts  were  set,  and  the 
wires  extended  from  Washington  to  Baltimore,  forty 
miles,  and  the  magnetic  telegraph  put  in  successful 
operation  between  those  cities.  In  1845  and  1846, 
Professor  Morse  sold  to  private  companies  the  right 
to  use  the  telegraph  on  specified  routes  ;  and,  before 
the  close  of  1848,  there  were  7000  miles  of  tele 
graphic  wires  in  the  United  States,  connecting  the 
principal  cities  in  the  Union.  The  merchant  in  Bos 
ton  or  New  York  can,  in  this  way,  send  a  message  or 
propose  a  question  to  a  merchant  in  Cincinnati,  St. 
Louis,  or  New  Orleans,  and  in  two  or  three  hours 
receive  an  answer.  The  morning  papers  at  Boston 
and  New  York  contain  a  record  of  what  took  place 
at  Buffalo,  or  Baltimore,  or  Pittsburg,  at  eight  o'clock 
the  evening  previous.  An  event  that  occurs  in  New 


212  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

York  at  two  o'clock,  P.  M.,  may  be  published  in  the 
streets  of  St.  Louis  before  two  j  the  conveyance  of 
the  intelligence  does  not  use  up  all  the  difference  in 
time  between  the  two  cities.  The  whole  of  Presi 
dent  Folk's  last  message,  in  December,  1848,  was 
telegraphed  to  St.  Louis  and  other  western  cities ;  the 
paper  on  which  the  telegraphic  signs  were  written  was 
7200  feet  in  length.  The  newspapers  that  were  pub 
lished  the  day  succeeding  the  presidential  election  in 
November,  1848,  had  returns  of  the  votes  of  a  por 
tion  of  more  than  half  the  states  in  the  Union.  It 
was  a  most  wonderful  display  of  what  can  be  accom 
plished  by  human  skill,  under  the  guidance  of  science. 
There  are  now  11,600  miles  of  telegraph  in  the 
United  States,  worked  under  Professor  Morse's  patent. 
Electric  telegraphs  were  invented  by  Wheatstone 
of  London,  Steinhiil  of  Munich,  and  Masson  of  Caen. 
The  principle  of  their  telegraphs  was  different  from 
Morse's.  The  celebrated  Ampere,  soon  after  Oersted, 
having  discovered  that  a  magnetic  needle  was  deflected 
by  electricity,  suggested  that  a  telegraph  might  be 
constructed  by  running  as  many  wires  as  there  were 
letters  in  the  alphabet,  and  placing  a  magnetic  needle 
near  the  extremity  of  each.  The  movement  of  a 
given  needle  would  signify  what  letter  was  to  be 
written.  All  the  European  electric  telegraphs  since 
1825  grew  out  of  this  suggestion  of  Ampere.  Wheat- 
stone's,  which  was  used  for  a  time  in  England,  em 
ployed  six  wires  and  five  needles,  by  the  movements 
of  which  he  indicated  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 


THE  HALF  CENTUEY.  213 

Professor  Morse's  has  been  examined  by  scientific 
men  in  Europe,  and  is  acknowledged  to  be  simpler, 
cheaper,  and  far  more  valuable. 

There  are  now  in  this  country  three  rival  tele 
graphs.  The  authors  of  each  have  secured  patent 
rights.  Morse  sued  one  of  them  for  an  infringement 
of  the  patent,  and  gained  his  cause  before  the  courts 
in  Kentucky;  but  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  has  decided  that  a  principle  cannot  be  patented  ; 
that  Morse's  great  discovery  that  messages  can  be 
communicated  by  electricity  can  no  more  be  patented 
than  the  law  of  gravitation,  discovered  by  Newton. 
Morse's  patent,  therefore,  secures  to  him  only  a  mo 
nopoly  of  his  mode  of  writing.  If  any  one  else  can 
invent  a  different  mechanism  for  doing  the  same 
thing,  the  patent  laws  give  him  the  right  to  do  so. 


SECTION  5.      Post-Offices. 

THE  post-office  system,  during  the  last  fifty  years, 
has  been  greatly  extended.  The  number  of  post- 
offices  has  increased  very  rapidly,  and  the  mail  is 
employed  for  conveying  letters  of  friendship,  as  well 
as  of  business,  more  than  it  was.  There  were  many 
towns  in  New  England  that  contained,  in  1800,  more 
than  one  thousand  inhabitants,  that  had  no  post-office 
within  ten  miles.  In  the  three  counties  in  Massa 
chusetts  crossed  by  the  Connecticut  River,  there 
were  then,  I  think,  only  three  offices.  Of  course,  the 


214  THE  HALF  CENTUKY. 

people  wrote  in  those  days  no  more  letters  than  it 
was  necessary  they  should.  It  was  not  then,  as  it  is 
now,  so  important  a  means  of  civilization,  and  did 
comparatively  little  to  bind  together  families  sepa 
rated  by  distance,  and  to  keep  them  reminded  of  each 
other's  welfare.  Now,  every  village  of  three  or  four 
hundred  people  deem  it  necessary  to  their  happiness 
and  comfort,  as  well  as  interest,  to  have  a  post-office, 
and  a  mail  at  least  once  a  week. 

Milrs  of 


Post-  Offices. 

Post  Routes 

Income. 

1800 

903 

20,817 

$280,804 

1805 

1,558 

31,076 

421,373 

1810 

2,300 

36,406 

551,684 

1820 

4,500 

72,492 

1,111,927 

1830 

8,450 

115,176 

1,850,583 

1840 

13,468 

155,739 

4,539,265 

1848 

16,159 

163,208 

4,371,077 

In  1800,  the  rates  of  letter-postage  were  as  follows : 
Under  40  miles,  8  cents ;  over  40  and  under  90 
miles,  10  cents;  over  90  and  under  150  miles,  12£ 
cents ;  over  150  and  under  300  miles,  17  cents ;  over 
300  and  under  500  miles,  20  cents ;  and  over  500 
miles,  25  cents. 

About  1815,  the  rate  of  letter-postage  was  altered  : 
Under  30  miles,  6  cents;  over  30  and  under  80 
miles,  10  cents;  over  80  and  under  150  miles,  12£ 
cents;  over  150  and  under  400  miles,  18}  cents;  and 
over  400  miles,  25  cents. 

In  1845,  a  system  of  cheap  postage  was  intro 
duced.  All  letters  not  exceeding  half  an  ounce  in 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  215 

weight,  for  any  distance  not  exceeding  300  miles,  5 
cents ;  for  any  distance  greater,  10  cents. 

If  the  franking  privilege  was  abolished,  the  postage 
on  letters  might  be  reduced  still  lower.  Special 
efforts  are  making  to  induce  Congress  to  establish  a 
system  of  penny  postage,  or  at  least  to  have  all  letters 
carried  to  any  place  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
United  States  for  two  or  three  cents.  It  is  thought 
the  post-office  department  could  afford  to  do  it,  if  the 
franking  privilege  was  abolished.  There  certainly  is 
no  good  reason  why  members  of  Congress,  who  are 
fully  paid  for  their  services,  should  have  the  privilege 
of  using  the  mail  without  charge,  and  every  other 
individual  in  the  country  pay  one  or  two  cents  more 
for  every  letter  they  receive,  to  enable  them  to  receive 
their  letters  gratis. 

Rowland  Hill's  system  of  penny  postage  was  intro 
duced  into  England  in  1840.  The  number  of  letters 
mailed  in  Great  Britain  in  1839,  under  the  old  system, 
was  76,000,000;  in  1848,  under  the  new,  it  was 
346,000,000. 


216  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

PROGRESS   OF  SCIENCE. 

SECTION  1.     Science  the  Handmaid  of  Religion. 

DURING  the  last  century,  infidel  philosophers  were 
diligent  in.  their  efforts  to  find  some  fact  in  science 
that  would  prove  some  part  of  the  Bible  false,  and  thus 
invalidate  the  authenticity  of  the  whole.  As  early  as 
1806,  the  French  Institute  had  formed  more  than 
eighty  theories  in  regard  to  the  age  of  the  world,  all 
of  which  were  hostile  to  the  Bible.  If  they  could 
show  by  facts  that  the  earth  had  existed  more  than 
4000  years  at  the  birth  of  Christ,  then  it  would  fol 
low  that  the  chronology  of  the  Bible  was  wrong,  and 
would  afford  a  reasonable  ground  for  concluding  that 
many  of  its  narratives  may  also  be  wrong.  By  some 
it  was  confidently  asserted,  that  the  earth  had  existed 
as  many  as  15,000  years  previous  to  the  Christian 
era.  These  attempts  to  array  the  deductions  of  sci 
ence  against  the  sacred  Scriptures  aroused  the  friends 
of  the  Bible,  and  led  to  a  more  careful  examination 
of  the  relations  of  science  to  religion.  This  subject 
has  attracted  more  attention  during  the  last  50  years 
than  ever  before. 

In  1809,  while  the  French  army  was  in  Egypt, 
several  learned  men  attached  to  it,  having  leisure, 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  217 

spent  considerable  time  in  attempts  to  ascertain  the 
depth  of  the  diluvium  deposited  by  the  annual  over 
flowings  of  the  Nile.  They  entered  upon  this  exam 
ination,  it  is  said,  for  their  own  gratification,  without 
any  reference  to  Scripture  chronology.  They  select 
ed  the  most  favorable  place  for  an  examination,  and 
dug  more  than  200  pits  at  different  distances  from  the 
river,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  depth  of 
the  diluvium  was  a  little  more  than  20  feet.  They 
furthermore  ascertained  that  the  stratum  deposited  in 
a  century  was  a  little  more  than  4£  inches.  Now,  if 
20  feet  be  divided  by  4£  inches,  it  gives  a  quotient  of 
56J-,  showing  that  the  Nile  had  been  overflowing  its 
banks  5,650  years,  which  is  so  near  the  age  of  the 
world,  according  to  the  chronology  of  the  Bible,  that 
it  went  to  confirm  the  friends  of  the  sacred  volume  in 
the  belief  that  they  had  nothing  to  fear  from  the  in 
vestigations  of  science. 

An  argument  has  been  derived  by  infidels  against 
the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  record,  from  the  zodiac  of 
Denderah,  found  near  Thebes,  in  Upper  Egypt.  On 
removing  the  rubbish  from  that  ancient  temple,  it 
was  found  to  be  adorned  with  astronomical  figures 
and  hieroglyphical  characters.  They  found  there  a 
circle,  representing  the  ecliptic,  or  zodiac.  This  was 
separated  from  the  temple  and  removed  to  France 
in  1821.  The  French  astronomers  noticed  that 
the  sign  Leo  was  there  represented,  as  they  inferred 
from  its  position,  as  the  first  sign  of  the  ecliptic; 
whereas,  in  modern  astronomies,  Aries  is  the  first.  It 
19 


218  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

is  well  known  that  there  is  an  annual  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  which  amounts  to  one  degree  in  71J 
years.  The  French  astronomers  reasoned  in  this 
way ;  they  said,  when  that  temple  was  constructed, 
the  sun  must  have  crossed  the  Equator  in  Leo,  but 
since  then  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  has  carried 
it  forward  210°,  to  the  sign  Pisces.  The  temple,  they 
said,  must  have  been  built  210  times  71j  years  ago, 
or  14,967.  This  result  was  published  and  repub- 
lished  throughout  Europe,  as  a  triumphant  refutation 
of  the  truth  of  the  Mosaic  chronology. 

There  was  at  that  time  in  France  a  distinguished 
man,  John  Francis  Champollion,  who  had  devoted 
much  time  to  the  study  of  Egyptian  antiquities,  and 
had  succeeded  in  deciphering  their  hieroglyphics. 
He  found,  in  the  temple  of  Denderah,  a  Greek  inscrip 
tion,  from  which  he  learned  that  the  temple  was 
erected  while  the  Romans  were  possessors  of  Egypt, 
and  that  it  was  dedicated  to  Tiberius.  It  must, 
therefore,  have  been  built  only  50  years  before  the 
Christian  era.  In  a  letter  written  by  the  minister  of 
the  interior  to  the  king  of  France,  dated  May  15, 
1826,  it  is  said,  "  Your  majesty  has  not  forgotten  that 
the  discoveries  of  Champollion  have  demonstrated 
beyond  contradiction,  that  the  zodiac  of  Denderah, 
which  appeared  to  alarm  public  belief,  is  only  a  work 
of  the  Roman  epoch  in  Egypt." 

Infidelity,  unwilling  to  relinquish  so  good  an  argu 
ment,  admitted  that  the  temple  itself  might  be  mod 
ern,  but  the  zodiac  must  have  been  copied  from  one 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  219 

that  was  constructed  when  the  sun  crossed  the  equa 
tor  in  Leo. 

It  so  happened  that,  just  at  this  point  of  time,  an 
enterprising  traveller  returned  from  Egypt,  bringing 
with  him  a  mummy,  which  he  obtained  near  the 
temple  from  which  the  zodiac  had  been  taken.  On 
opening  it,  there  was  found  a  Greek  inscription,  from 
which  it  was  known  to  be  the  body  of  Pentemenon, 
the  son  of  Soter  and  Cleopatra,  who  died  at  the  age 
of  21  years,  4  months,  and  22  days,  in  the  19th  year 
of  the  reign  of  Trajan,  or  June  2,  A.  D.  116.  In  the 
case,  and^  encircling  the  head  of  the  mummy,  there 
was  a  zodiac  resembling  the  one  found  in  the  temple, 
but  so  placed  that  the  sign  Capricorn  was  directly 
over  its  head.  This  suggested  the  idea  that  the 
zodiac  was  used  for  astrological  and  not  for  astronom 
ical  purposes.  Having  the  precise  age  of  Penteme 
non,  it  was  easy  to  determine  that  he  was  born  under 
the  sign  Capricorn,  which  was  placed  over  his  head. 
By  the  same  process  of  reasoning,  it  was  made  evi 
dent  that  the  position  of  the  zodiac  of  Denderah  de 
termined  the  sign  under  which  the  temple  was  built. 
Infidelity  was  forced  to  retreat,  while  Science  showed 
herself  to  be  the  handmaid  of  Religion. 

The  science  of  geology,  under  the  tutelage  of 
sceptical  men,  has  been  made  to  testify  that  the  earth 
was  created  and  full  of  vegetable  and  animal  life 
many  thousand  years  anterior  to  the  time  specified  in 
the  book  of  Genesis.  I  shall  speak  of  this  more  fully 
in  the  section  on  geology. 


220  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Infidelity  has  denied  the  resurrection  of  Christ 
from  the  dead  on  the  assumption  that  he  was  not 
dead  when  laid  in  the  sepulchre.  She  declares  that 
he  could  not  have  died  in  so  short  a  time  by  the  ordi 
nary  pains  of  crucifixion,  A  late  writer,  eminent  in 
the  medical  profession,  has  shown,  by  reasoning  from 
the  facts  we  have  on  this  subject,  that  when  "on  him 
was  laid  the  iniquity  of  us  all,"  such  was  the  pressure 
of  sorrow,  that  it  produced  a  rupture  of  the  heart, 
and  hence  the  reason  why  life  was  so  soon  extinct. 

Within  two  or  three  years,  the  theory  has  been 
revived,  that  the  different  races  of  men  are  not,  as  the 
Scriptures  teach,  the  descendants  of  one  original  pair. 
The  advocates  of  this  theory  do  not  profess  to  deny 
the  teachings  of  the  Bible.  They  claim  that  the 
Scriptures,  properly  interpreted,  do  not  teach  that  all 
men  descended  from  Adam.  Already  two  volumes 
have  been  published  in  opposition  to  this  opinion,  one 
by  Dr.  Bachman  and  the  other  by  Dr.  Smythe. 
They  are  learned  and  able  treatises  on  the  subject,  to 
which  no  reply  has  been  made.  We  have  no  fears 
for  the  result ;  we  believe  that  Science,  as  heretofore, 
will  prove  herself  to  be  the  handmaid  of  Religion. 

Science  affords' numerous  and  striking  illustrations 
of  religious  truth;  and  the  more  carefully  its  princi 
ples  are  investigated,  the  more  distinctly  will  it  be 
seen  that  the  principles  of  science  are  not  at  war 
with  the  principles  or  facts  recorded  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures. 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years,  much  has  been 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  221 

written  showing  the  connection  between  science  and 
religion.  The  works  of  Drs.  Dick  and  Duncan,  of' 
Scotland,  contain  much  that  is  valuable  on  this 
subject. 


SECTION  2.     Astronomy. 

THE  progress  of  astronomical  science,  during  the 
last  fifty  years,  is  seen  in  the  discoveries  that  have 
been  made,  in  the  greater  perfection  of  astronomical 
instruments,  in  the  accuracy  of  calculations  and  ob 
servations,  and  in  the  wider  diffusion  of  a  knowledge 
of  its  principles. 

January  1,  1801,  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  M.  Piazzi,  of  Palermo,  discovered 
the  small  planet  Ceres.  March  21,  1802,  Dr.  Gibers, 
of  Germany,  discovered  Pallas,  and  March  29,  1807, 
Vesta.  September  2;  1804,  M.  Harding,  of  Lielien- 
thal,  discovered  Juno.  December  8,  1845,  M.  Hencke 
discovered  Astrsea,  and  July  1,  1847,  Hebe.  In 
August,  that  year,  Mr.  J.  R.  Hind  discovered  Iris, 
and  in  October,  Flora.  April  25,  1848,  Mr.  Graham, 
of  Ireland,  discovered  Metis ;  and  April  12,  1847,  Mr. 
Gasparis,  of  Naples,  discovered  Hygeia.  These  small 
planets,  or  asteroids,  are  supposed  to  be  the  fragments 
of  an  exploded  or  broken  planet  that  once  revolved 
between  Mars  and  Jupiter. 

The  most  magnificent  discovery  of  the  last  half 
century,  in  this  science,  is  that  of  the  planet  Nep 
tune,  the  most  distant  planet.  Le  Yerrier,  a  French 
19* 


222  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

mathematician  and  astronomer,  in  order  to  account 
for  the  perturbations  of  Uranus,  the  most  remote 
planet  then  known,  adopted  the  hypothesis  that  they 
were  occasioned  by  the  attraction  of  another  planet 
exterior  to  itself.  This  was  not  with  him  an  original 
hypothesis.  It  had  often  been  suggested  by  others. 
He  undertook  to  ascertain,  by  calculation,  the  dis 
tance,  size,  and  periodical  revolutions  of  the  supposed 
planet,  that  would  produce  the  perturbations  of  Ura 
nus.  He  completed  his  calculation  in  August,  1846, 
and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must  be  thirty- 
three  times  as  far  from  the  sun  as  the  earth  is,  must 
revolve  in  217£  years,  and  be  thirty-eight  times 
larger  than  the  earth.  Having  come  to  these  results, 
he  proceeded  to  show  in  what  part  of  the  heavens  it 
then  was,  if  such  a  planet  really  existed.  He  com 
municated  these  results  to  the  French  Academy,  who 
made  them  public  in  the  latter  part  of  August.  On 
the  23d  of  September,  1846,  M.  Galle,  of  Berlin,  dis 
covered  a  planet  which  corresponded  to  the  one 
calculated  by  Le  Verrier.  Mr.  Lassels,  of  Liverpool, 
discovered  it  October  3. 

Generally,  observations  and  discoveries  are  made 
first,  and  the  calculations  are  made  afterwards ;  but 
in  this  case,  the  calculations  preceded  the  discovery, 
and  were  a  clew  to  it.  On  this  account,  it  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  wonderful  achievements 
of  intellect,  and  the  most  remarkable  proof  of  the 
accuracy  of  astronomical  calculations  that  the  world 
has  ever  witnessed. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  223 

Very  few  men  are  allowed  to  enjoy  the  honor  of 
brilliant  discoveries  unmolested.  The  English  claim 
that  the  same  result  was  obtained  by  a  young  astron 
omer  of  England.  Mr.  Adams,  while  yet  a  member 
of  the  university,  in  1843,  commenced  a  calculation 
like  that  of  Le  Yerrier,  and  communicated  the  result 
to  Mr.  Challis,  the  professor  of  astronomy,  in  Sep 
tember,  1845.  Professor  Challis  commenced  a  sys 
tematic  search  for  it  several  weeks  before  Le  Verrier 
made  his  announcement  to  the  French  Academy,  and 
claims  to  have  seen  the  planet  twice  in  August,  1846, 
but  failed  to  recognize  it  as  the  one  for  which  he  was 
making  diligent  search. 

If  we  admit  these  claims  of  the  English  to  be  true, 
it  does  not  detract  at  all  from  the  brilliancy  of  Le 
Verrier's  discoveries  ;  it  only  shows  that  he  is  not  so 
tar  superior  to  others  as  he  would  otherwise  seem  to 
be.  That  the  thing  was  thought  of  by  others,  and 
regarded  as  a  problem  that  could  be  solved,  is  proved 
by  the  following  extract  from  an  address  by  Sir  John 
Herschel  before  the  British  Association,  in  the  sum 
mer  of  1846.  After  saying  that  the  previous  year 
had  made  us  acquainted  with  a  fifth  asteroid,  he  said, 
"  It  has  done  more  ;  it  has  given  us  the  probable 
prospect  of  the  discovery  of  another  planet.  We  see 
it  as  Columbus  saw  America  from  the  shores  of 
Spain.  Its  movements  have  been  felt  trembling 
along  the  far-reaching  line  of  our  analysis,  with  a 
certainty  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  ocular  demon 
stration."  As  early  as  1834,  it  was  said  the  irregu- 


224  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

larities  of  Uranus  must  be  occasioned  by  an  exterior 
planet. 

Several  new  comets  have  been  discovered  during 
the  period  under  review,  and  their  elements  com 
puted. 

A  splendid  comet  appeared  in  1811.  It  was  visible 
in  England  ten  months.  The  time  of  its  revolution 
was  computed  to  be  2,888  years.  In  1819,  Professor 
Encke  discovered  a  comet  which  revolves  in  three 
years  and  a  half.  In  1826,  Captain  Biela  discovered 
another  which  revolves  in  six  and  three  fourths  years. 
In  1832,  it  was  announced  that  Biela's  comet  would 
cross  the  earth's  orbit  at  the  distance  of  1,800  miles 
only  from  the  earth.  This  announcement  excited 
great  alarm  among  the  common  people  in  France  ; 
so  much,  that  M.  Arago  found  it  necessary  to  give 
the  people  a  sort  of  assurance  that  no  injury  would 
be  done  to  the  earth  by  the  approach  of  the  comet. 
In  1843,  another  comet  was  discovered  by  M.  du 
Faye,  of  Paris,  which  revolves  in  seven  and  three 
tenths  years.  October  1,  1847,  a  telescopic  comet 
was  discovered  by  Miss  Maria  Mitchell,  of  INantucket, 
and  its  elements  were  computed.  The  king  of  Deri- 
mark  awarded  her  a  gold  medal,  which  she  received 
in  1848. 

The  morning  of  November  13,  1833,  was  rendered 
memorable  by  an  extensive  and  magnificent  shower 
of  shooting  stars.  No  celestial  phenomenon  has  ever 
occurred  in  this  country,  since  its  first  settlement, 
which  has  been  viewed  with  so  much  admiration  by 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  225 

one  class  in  the  community,  or  with  so  much  terror 
and  alarm  by  another.  It  was  the  topic  of  conver 
sation  for  many  weeks.  It  occurred  about  daybreak, 
and  continued  till  near  sunrise.  A  full  account  of 
this  phenomenon  may  be  found  in  vol.  xxv.  of 
Sillimairs  Journal,  with  additional  remarks  and  rea 
sonings  in  several  subsequent  volumes,  by  Professor 
Olmsted,  of  Yale  College,  who  examined  the  subject 
very  thoroughly.  It  was  his  opinion  that  they  pro 
ceeded  from  some  point  beyond  the  atmosphere  of 
the  earth,  and  that  they  might  be  annual.  A  similar 
phenomenon  has  been  witnessed  in  several  succeeding 
years,  but  on  a  much  smaller  scale. 

A  similar  exhibition  of  shooting  stars  was  seen  in 
England,  in  November,  1832.  Probably  that  in  1833, 
seen  in  almost  every  part  of  North  America,  was  the 
most  wonderful  that  has  ever  been  recorded.  They 
flamed  "  lawless  through  the  sky  ;  "  and  the  poet 

might  say,  — 

"  the  sanguine  flood 

Rolled  a  broad  slaughter  o'er  the  plains  of  heaven, 
And  nature's  self  did  seem  to  totter  on  the  brink  of  time." 

Great  improvements  have  been  made  within  fifty 
years  in  astronomical  instruments.  Those  used  at 
the  present  day  surpass  those  of  former  times,  not 
only  in  elegance,  but  in  accuracy.  Lord  Rosse's  mon 
ster  telescope  bids  fair  to  extend  our  astronomical 
knowledge,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  as  much  as 
Herschel's  did  in  the  eighteenth.  It  was  used  first 
in  1844,  though  not  finished  till  1845.  Its  reflector 


226  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

is  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  its  focal  distance  fifty- 
four  feet.  It  resolves  many  of  the  nebulae  into 
clusters  of  stars. 

Fifty  years  ago,  there  was  not  an  astronomical 
observatory  in  the  United  States,  erected  solely  and 
exclusively  for  that  purpose.  The  first  was  built  at 
Williams  College,  by  the  zeal,  and  chiefly  at  the 
expense,  of  Professor  A.  Hopkins.  It  was  completed 
in  1838.  Another  was  erected  at  Hudson,  Ohio,  in 
1839.  In  1840,  an  observatory  was  added  to  Girard 
College,  and  in  the  same  year,  the  city  council  of 
Philadelphia  passed  an  ordinance  authorizing  the 
erection  of  one  in  Rittenhouse  Square.  In  1843,  an 
observatory  was  commenced  in  Cincinnati  by  the 
enterprise  of  Professor  Mitchell.  The  corner  stone 
was  laid  in  November,  1843,  on  which  occasion  an 
address  was  delivered  by  John  Q,uincy  Adams.  It 
was  completed  in  1845,  and  is  furnished  with  a  tele 
scope  which  cost,  in  Germany,  $7,000.  In  1844,  an 
observatory  was  erected  at  Cambridge,  called  "  Sears's 
Tower,"  for  the  erection  of  which  David  Sears,  Esq., 
of  Boston,  gave  $5,000.  It  stands  on  Summer  Hill. 
Since  then,  one  has  been  built  at  Amherst,  by  the  aid 
of  benevolent  individuals. 

John  Q,uincy  Adams,  in  his  first  message  to  Con 
gress,  recommended  the  erection  of  a  national  obser 
vatory  at  Washington. 

In  consequence  of  the  improvements  in  astronomi 
cal  instruments,  and  the  increased  zeal  for  making 
observations,  the  boundaries  of  this  science  have  been 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  227 

extended.  It  is  now  understood  that  comets  are 
exceedingly  light  bodies,  the  veriest  film,  mere  mist  ; 
so  thin  that  stars  of  the  sixteenth  magnitude  may  be 
seen  through  the  nucleus.  They  are  so  light  and 
evanescent  that  one  which  passed  among  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter  did  not  disturb  their  motions.  It  is  now 
believed  that  they  are  self-luminous,  and  not  depend 
ent  on  the  sun  for  light. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  whole  solar  system,  and  per 
haps  infinite  space,  is  filled  with  an  exceedingly  subtile 
fluid,  or  ether,  which  resists  the  motion  of  comets  on 
account  of  their  exceeding  lightness,  but  affords  no 
appreciable  resistance  to  the  motion  of  planets.  This 
accounts  for  a  fact  discovered  by  Encke,  that  comets 
make  each  succeeding  revolution  in  a  shorter  time. 

Sir  John  Herschel  has  continued  his  labors  with 
great  zeal  for  many  years,  perfecting  his  calculations, 
and  enlarging  his  catalogue  of  fixed  stars,  particularly 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  He  has  spent  about  four 
years  in  South  Africa,  to  which  place  he  transported 
his  astronomical  instruments,  and  at  his  own  expense, 
and  has  contributed  much  that  is  valuable  to  astro 
nomical  science. 

The  knowledge  of  astronomy  is  much  more  widely 
diffused  than  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  this  century. 
It  is  studied  in  all  schools  where  any  of  the  sciences 
are  taught,  as  well  as  in  colleges. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  persons  that  have 
contributed  to  the  progress  of  this  science,  who  have 
died  within  the  period  under  consideration  :  — 


228  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Sir  William  Herschel  died  at  Slough,  England, 
August,  1822,  aged  83.  His  sister  Caroline  Lucretia 
died  at  Hanover,  January  9,  1848,  aged  98. 

Dr.  H.  W.  M.  Gibers  died  at  Bremen,  March  2, 
1840,  aged  81. 


SECTION  3.     Chemistry. 

IT  was  said,  not  long  ago,  that  "  chemical  science 
has  become  far  too  vast  and  complex  a  subject  to  be 
dealt  with  by  any  summary  in  the  pages  of  a  review." 
I  may  say,  with  equal  truth,  that  the  discoveries  in 
this  science,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  have  been  too 
numerous  to  be  noticed  in  the  brief  space  I  have 
allotted  to  this  subject.  I  shall  attempt  nothing  more 
than  an  outline  of  the  progress  that  has  been  made. 
It  will  be  easy  to  show  that  great  progress  has  been 
made,  without  mentioning  each  particular  step  of 
advancement. 

If  a  distinguished  chemist  had  fallen  asleep  in 
1800,  and  had  awaked  in  1850,  and  had  been  intro 
duced  into  a  chemist's  labaratory,  furnished  with 
all  the  apparatus  that  has  been  discovered  during 
his  repose,  he  would  find  it  difficult  to  determine  for 
what  the  room  is  used ;  or,  if  the  last  treatise  on  this 
science  should  be  put  into  his  hand,  he  would  find 
very  little  that  would  be  familiar. 

In  1801,  Wollaston,  Chaptal,  Volta,  Henry,  and 
Thompson,  were  among  the  leading  experimenters 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  229 

in  Europe,  and  Professor  Woodhouse,  and  Drs. 
Mitchell  and  McLean,  in  this  country.  Davy,  Ber- 
zelius,  Dumas,  Faraday,  and  Berthollet,  together 
with  many  others,  were  beginning  to  attract  atten 
tion  in  Europe,  while  Professors  Hare  and  Silliman 
were  commencing  their  brilliant  career  in  this  country. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  distinguished 
chemists  that  have  died  within  fifty  years :  —  Dr.  Wol- 
laston,  December  22,  1828,  aged  62.  J.  A.  Chaptal, 
July  30,  1832,  at  Paris,  aged  76.  Sir  H.  Davy,  May 
28,  1829,  while  on  a  journey  on  the  continent,  aged 
50.  A.  Volta,  in  Italy,  March  5,  1827,  aged  82.  Dr. 
E.  Turner,  at  London,  September  7,  1831,  aged  40. 
The  elder  Berzelius,  of  Sweden,  August  7,  1847, 
aged  69. 

In  1806,  Dr.  Ewell,  of  Virginia,  published  a  vol 
ume  of  Lectures  on  Chemistry,  in  which  he  seems  to 
have  caught  a  glimpse  of  the  importance  of  this 
science,  which  we  of  this  age  have  never  had. 
"  Ye  free  agents,"  he  says,  "  ye  guardians  of  the 
young,  can  you  allow  those  under  your  care  to 
neglect  learning  the  principles  of  this  all-important 
science  ?  What  will  you  say,  when  arraigned  at  the 
bar  of  justice,  before  an  assembled  universe,  for  your 
neglect  of  this  duty  ?  " 

In  comparing  what  chemistry  was  fifty  years  ago 
with  what  it  is  now,  we  cannot  fail  to  notice  the 
wonderful  increase  of  exactness  in  every  part  of 
chemical  analysis  and  inquiry.  The  age  of  crude 
hypotheses -and  vague  results  has  passed  by.  In  the 
20 


230  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

analysis  of  substances  there  is  a  perfection  and  an 
accuracy  that  is  very  remarkable.  What  was  formerly 
recorded  as  loss  in  the  operation,  or  as  residual  dross, 
is  now  found  to  contain  divers  substances,  as  essen 
tial,  no  doubt,  to  constitute  the  thing  what  it  is,  as 
the  heavier  ingredients.  Tests  so  delicate  have  been 
discovered,  that  a  substance,  constituting  no  more 
than  a  millionth  part  of  the  compound  to  be  analyzed, 
can  be  detected.  The  refinements  of  analysis  are 
now  carried  so  far,  that  not  only  the  existence  of  an 
ingredient,  when  the  quantity  is  exceedingly  small, 
is  detected,  but  its  exact  quantity  determined. 

Chemists  have  been  aided  very  much  in  the  accu 
racy  of  analysis  by  the  discovery  of  the  laws  by 
which  chemical  compounds  are  regulated.  It  was 
known  in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century  that 
bodies  combined  with  each  other  in  definite  propor 
tions  ;  but  the  fact  was  not  so  explained  as  to  attract 
much  attention,  or  to  give  much  idea  of  its  impor 
tance.  It  was  Dalton,  an  English  chemist,  who 
explained  the  principle  and  showed  its  practical 
value  so  clearly,  that  he  is  regarded  by  many  as  the 
discoverer.  He  proved  by  experiment,  that  when  a 
given  base,  as  nitrogen,  combines  with  different 
quantities  of  oxygen,  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
will  be  an  exact  multiple  of  the  first.  The  excep 
tions  to  this  law  are  very  few. 

The  relative  weight  of  the  least  quantity  of  any 
substance  that  will  combine  with  any  other  has  also 
been  ascertained,  and  renders  analysis  more  perfect. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  231 

If  hydrogen  gas  be  taken  as  the  standard,  and  its 
least  combining  weight  be  called  1,  that  of  oxygen 
is  8,  of  nitrogen  14,  sulphur  16,  carbon  6,  &c.  ; 
and  hence  the  combination  may  be  represented  by  a 
number,  thus  :  9  is  the  chemical  number  for  water, 
which  is  1  of  hydrogen  and  8  of  oxygen  ;  22  repre 
sents  nitrous  oxide,  which  is  8  of  oxygen  and  14 
of  nitrogen. 

Berzelius,  of  Stockholm,  discovered  another  law  — 
that  two  compounds  which  contain  the  same  electro 
negative  body  always  combine  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  electro-negative  element  of  one  is  a  multiple  by  a 
whole  number  of  the  same  element  in  the  other  ; 
thus  carbonic  acid  is  carbon  6  and  oxygen  16  ;  potash 
is  potassa  40  and  oxygen  8 ;  and,  since  the  oxygen 
of  the  former  (16)  is  a  multiple  of  the  latter,  (8,)  the 
two  will  unite  and  form  carbonate  of  potash. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy,  having  found  that  a  greater 
heat  could  be  produced  by  the  galvanic  battery  than 
by  any  other  means,  undertook,  in  1806  and  1807,  to 
decompose  substances  which  had  been  considered 
simple  bodies.  He  succeeded  in  reducing  common 
potash  to  oxygen  and  a  metallic  base,  which  he  called 
potassa.  During  those  years  he  discovered  five  new 
metals. 

In  1810,  he  proved  that  what  had  been  called  oxy- 
muriatic  acid,  instead  of  being  an  unknown  base 
combined  with  two  portions  of  oxygen,  was  in  fact  a 
simple  substance,  which  he  called  chlorine,  and  that 
muriatic  acid  is  a  compound  of  chlorine  and  hydro- 


232  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

gen.  This  was  a  grand  discovery,  and  overthrew  the 
universally  received  doctrine  that  oxygen  is  the  only 
acidifying  principle.  Chlorine  is  furthermore  a  sup 
porter  of  combustion,  and  therefore  the  definition  of 
combustion  was  changed.  In  1815,  Davy  discovered 
the  safety-lamp,  by  which  the  fire- damp,  or  carburet- 
ted  hydrogen,  is  burned  without  any  explosion. 

In  1801,  Professor  Hare,  of  Philadelphia,  invented 
the  compound  blowpipe,  by  which  oxygen  and  hydro 
gen  are  burned  without  explosion.  In  1821,  he 
invented  the  galvanic  deflagrator,  a  piece  of  apparatus 
by  which  the  maximum  power  of  the  galvanic  battery 
is  obtained  instantaneously,  and  made  to  cease  at 
pleasure. 

In  1819,  Professor  Oersted,  of  Copenhagen,  discov 
ered  electro-magnetism,  or  that  magnetism  might  be 
developed  by  electricity.  This  discovery  was  fol 
lowed  out  by  Ampere  and  Faraday,  who  succeeded 
in  producing  circular  motion  by  electro-magnetism. 
It  has  of  late  been  ascertained  that  the  power  pro 
ducing  this  motion  is  very  great,  and  it  is  believed 
that  it  may  be  ufted  to  propel  machinery,  and  even  to 
move  a  boat  through  the  water.  Experiments  are 
being  made,  but  no  permanently  practical  results  have 
yet  been  reached.* 

*  August  15,  1850.  "Mr.  J.  H.  Tartrim,  who  has  been  engaged 
for  several  months,  in  Baltimore,  constructing  an  engine  to  be  pro 
pelled  by  electro-magnetism,  has  triumphantly  succeeded,  and  will 
soon  exhibit  his  machinery,  when  he  expects  to  demonstrate  its 
power  to  be  from  8  to  12  horse  capacity."  [October  15.  It  has  been 
done.] 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  •  233 

It  has  also  been  discovered  that  soft  iron  may  be 
rendered  magnetic  by  galvanism ;  but  the  moment  the 
current  is  interrupted,  the  magnetism  ceases.  It  is  by 
virtue  of  this  principle,  that  the  dots  and  lines  are 
made  upon  paper  in  Professor  Morse's  electro-magnetic 
telegraph. 

The  discoveries  that  have  been  made  in  galvanism, 
within  the  last  30  years,  have  led  to  the  conjecture 
that  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  may  be  the  result  of 
galvanic  action.  The  question  has  been  asked, 
whether  the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  may 
not  be  the  rotatory  motion  produced  by  galvanic 
fluids. 

Electro-magnets  are  distinguished  for  their  great 
power.  Professor  Henry,  now  secretary  of  the  Smith 
sonian  Institution,  and  Dr.  Ten  Eyck,  performed  a 
series  of  experiments  in  1829  and  1830,  which  show 
under  what  circumstances  the  power  of  such  magnets 
is  greatest.  They  succeeded  in  causing  a  small  mag 
net  to  raise  420  times  its  own  weight,  while  the 
strongest  ordinary  magnet  has  not  been  known  to 
raise  more  than  250  times  its  weight* 

In  1801,  there  were  supposed  to  be  about  40  sim 
ple  elementary  substances,  of  which  all  other  bodies 
are  composed.  Since  then,  several  of  those  supposed 
simples  have  been  decomposed,  and  about  30  new 
elementary  substances  have  been  discovered.  The 
whole  number  of  simple  substances  now  known 
is  58. 

During  the  last  half  century,  the  creative  part  of 
20* 


234  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

chemistry  has  been  greatly  extended.  The  refine 
ments  of  analysis,  and  the  discovery  of  laws  of 
combination,  have  put  it  into  the  power  of  the  chem 
ist  to  form  many  substances  that  have  no  existence 
in  nature.  The  Almighty  has  placed  us  in  the  midst 
of  matter  of  different  forms,  and  has  given,  to  those 
who  seek  for  it  in  the  appropriate  way,  the  poAver  of 
making  new  compounds,  both  useful  and  curious. 
When  a  new  elementary  substance  is  discovered,  it  is 
readily  ascertained  with  what  other  elementary  or 
compound  substances  it  will  form  chemical  combina 
tions,  and  thus  we  are  furnished  with  a  long  list  of 
new  substances. 

Organic  chemistry,  which  treats  of  vegetable  and 
animal  substances,  has  been  greatly  extended  during 
the  last  half  century.  In  this  department,  Professor 
Liebig  has  labored  with  great  success.  Dumas  and 
Prout  have  also  made  many  valuable  discoveries.  It 
is  impossible  to  present,  in  this  place,  any  just  view 
of  the  vast  labors,  and  no  less  vast  results,  which 
have  been  arrived  at  in  this  department  of  chemical 
science.  "  There  is  scarcely  a  principle  or  product 
of  organized  existence  which  has  not  been  submitted 
to  rigid  examination,  and  tried  in  all  its  relations  of 
affinity  with  other  bodies.  Nomenclature  has  been 
taxed  severely  to  record  and  classify  the  results  de 
rived  from  this  great  scheme  of  systematic  inquiry." 
These  bodies  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  same 
elementary  principles.  Oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon, 
and  nitrogen  greatly  predominate,  though  they  are 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  235 

variously  combined  with  small  quantities  of  other 
ingredients.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  elements  of 
organic  bodies  unite  with  each  other  in  definite  pro 
portions,  like  the  elements  of  inorganic  bodies.  The 
researches  in  this  department  of  chemistry  have  done 
much  to  improve  agricultural  chemistry,  which  is, 
comparatively,  a  new  subject  in  this  country.  The 
chemist,  having  analyzed  the  soil  and  the  different 
kinds  of  vegetables,  can  tell  at  once  whether  a  given 
soil  will  produce  a  given  vegetable,  and  if  not,  what 
must  be  added.  One  field  will  bear  wheat,  but  not 
peas;  and  another  will  bear  turnips,  but  not  clover; 
or  a  field  will  bear  wheat  for  a  few  years,  and  then 
lose  its  fertility  for  that  particular  plant.  The  agri 
cultural  chemist  has  interrogated  nature  on  these 
subjects,  and  has  ascertained  the  reason  why  the 
same  field  will  not  produce  all  kinds  of  vegetables  in 
equal  luxuriance,  and  what  must  be  done  to  make  a 
given  spot  of  earth  produce  any  vegetable  he  may 
plant  upon  it. 

The  gentlemen  who  have  been  employed  to  make 
geological  surveys  of  states  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  have  also  given  much  attention  to  the  analysis 
of  soils,  and,  by  so  doing,  have  done  much  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture. 

Fifty  years  ago,  there  were  comparatively  few  that 
had  any  knowledge  of  this  science ;  now,  compara 
tively  few  of  our  youth  grow  up  without  a  knowl 
edge  of  the  principles  of  chemistry.  Most  of  our 
chemists  are  teachers  of  the  science,  or  employed  in 


236  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

applying  it  to  the  arts,  and  have  not,  therefore,  de 
voted  so  much  time  to  making  discoveries  as  chemists 
in  Europe. 


SECTION  4.     Mineralogy  and   Geology. 

VERY  little  attention  was  given  to  either  of  these 
departments  of  natural  science  prior  to  the  commence 
ment  of  the  present  century.  Dr.  Adam  Seybert,  of 
Philadelphia,  Dr.  Mitchell,  of  New  York,  and  Profes 
sor  Waterhouse.  of  Cambridge,  made  collections  of 
minerals,  and  called  the  attention  of  learned  men  to 
these  and  other  branches  of  natural  history. 

In  1802  and  1803,  B.  D.  Perkins  and  Dr.  A.  Bruce 
returned  from  Europe  with  the  largest  and  most  beau 
tiful  collections  of  minerals  that  had  been  seen  in 
America.  In  1805,  Colonel  George  Gibbs,  of  New 
York,  returned  from  a  European  tour,  with  a  still 
more  beautiful  collection.  He  placed  them  in  rooms 
fitted  to  receive  them,  at  Yale  College.  In  1825,  the 
collection  was  purchased  by  the  friends  of  the  col 
lege  for  $20,000,  and  given  to  the  institution. 
Colonel  Gibbs  died  at  Newton,  near  New  York, 
August  5,  1833,  aged  57. 

In  1807,  William  M'Clure,  Esq.,  of  Philadelphia, 
returned  from  a  European  tour  with  another  valuable 
collection  of  minerals,  and  commenced  the  Herculean 
task  of  making  a  geological  survey  of  the  United 
States.  He  may  be  regarded  as  the  pioneer  in  this 


THE  HALF   CENTURY.  237 

science.  In  1816,  he  published  the  result  of  his  in 
vestigations  in  a  volume  entitled  American  Geology. 

In  1810,  Dr.  Bruce  commenced  the  publication  of 
a  Mineralogical  Journal,  the  first  of  the  kind  ever 
issued  from  an  American  press.  It  was  favorably 
received ;  but,  owing  to  extraneous  circumstances,  it 
was  discontinued  at  the  close  of  the  first  volume. 
Dr.  Bruce  died  in  New  York,  of  apoplexy,  February 
22,  1818,  aged  41. 

Geology  began  now  to  receive  considerable  atten 
tion.  In  1816,  Professor  P.  Cleaveland,  of  Bovvdoin 
College,  published  the  first  edition  of  his  treatise  on 
Mineralogy  and  Geology.  In  1817,  Professor  Amos 
Eaton  published  an  outline  of  the  Geology  of  the 
Northern  States;  in  collecting  the  facts  for  which  he 
travelled  on  foot  more  than  1,000  miles.  Rev.  Ed 
ward  Hitchcock,  now  president  of  Amherst  College, 
commenced  his  geological  investigations  about  this 
time;  and,  in  1818,  Henry  Schoolcraft,  the  indefati 
gable  western  traveller,  published  his  Views  of  the 
Mines  and  Minerals  of  the  Western  States. 

In  1818  was  commenced  the  publication  of  Silli- 
man's  Journal  of  Science,  which,  under  the  superin 
tendence  of  its  learned  editor,  has  done  very  much  to 
promote  the  advancement,  not  only  of  geological  sci 
ence,  but  of  all  the  sciences.  It  has  made  its  readers 
acquainted  with  the  progress  of  discovery,  and  has 
been  the  only  medium  through  which  men  of  science 
could  freely  communicate  with  each  other. 

In  1819,  the  American  Geological  Society  was  in- 


238  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

corporated  by  the  Connecticut  legislature,  and  or 
ganized  soon  after,  (September  6,)  at  New  Haven. 
William  M'Clure  was  chosen  president,  and  con 
tinued  to  hold  that  office  many  years  :  he  died  near 
the  city  of  Mexico,  in  1840. 

These  are  some  of  the  men  and  means  by  which 
these  sciences  have  been  promoted  in  this  country. 
Since  1820,  the  number  of  persons  that  have  don$ 
much  to  increase  our  stores  of  information  on  this 
subject  has  been  so  great,  that  I  shall  not  attempt 
to  notice  the  additions  made  by  each  individual,  but 
shall  call  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  a  few  leading 
facts. 

The  publication  of  Buckland's  Reliquiae  Diluvianse, 
in  1823,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  geological  investiga 
tions,  and  seemed  to  clothe  the  whole  subject  with  a 
new  interest.  His  discovery  of  the  bones  and  teeth 
of  various  animals  in  caverns,  under  circumstances 
which  rendered  it  quite  certain  that  they  must  kave 
been  deposited  there  before  the  Noachian  deluge,  fur 
nished  new  evidence  of  the  fact  of  the  deluge,  and 
of  its  extent,  and  proved  that  in  that  catastrophe  the 
sea  and  land  did  not  change  places,  as  many  had 
previously  supposed.  It  deepened  the  conviction  in 
the  minds  of  many,  that  there  are- no  facts  in  nature 
which  contradict  the  statements  found  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  and  led  to  the  conclusion,  that  if,  in  any 
case,  the  theories  of  men  conflict  with  the  Bible,  it 
affords  presumptive  proof  of  their  falsity. 

In  this  connection.  I  would  observe,  that  consider- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  239 

able  prejudice  has  been  excited  in  the  minds  of  many 
clergymen,  and  of  other  religious  men,  against  geolo 
gy,  because  some  of  its  teachers  have  been  disposed  to 
set  aside  the  more  obvious  meaning  of  some  passages 
of  Scripture,  and  interpret  them  so  as  to  accord  with 
geological  theories.  They  have  said  that  the  days 
of  creation  must  have  been  longer  than  a  natural  day. 
Much  has  been  said  on  this  subject,  and  something 
has  been  written.  The  feeling  that  has  existed  on 
this  subject  has  been  quieted  by  the  construction  that 
has  been  put  upon  Gen.  i.  1,  by  some  theologians. 
They  suggested  that  "  in  the  beginning  God  created 
the  heavens  and  the  earth,"  and  that  an  indefinitely 
long  period  may  have  intervened  between  this  crea 
tion  of  matter  and  the  work  of  the  six  days.  Geolo 
gists,  I  believe,  have  concluded  to  accept  of  this  in 
terpretation,  and  so  a  controversy  has  been  ended. 

The  reader  is  referred  for  further  information  on 
this  subject  to  a  learned  article  in  the  Repository  and 
Observer,  vol.  vi.  p.  261,  by  President  Hitchcock. 

Another  fact  worthy  of  notice  in  the  progress  of 
geological  science  in  this  country  is,  the  geological 
surveys  of  states  at  the  expense  of  the  states,  and  of 
territories  at  the  expense  of  the  United  States.  In 
this  way  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country,  and  the 
character  of  the  soil,  have  been  better  known. 

North  Carolina  took  the  lead  in  these  surveys. 
The  survey  of  that  state  was  made  in  1824  and  1825, 
under  the  direction  of  Professor  D.  Olmsted,  then  of 
Chapel  Hill,  now  of  Yale  College.  The  survey  of 


240  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

South  Carolina  was  made  about  the  same  time,  by 
Professor  Vanuxem. 

In  June,  1830,  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts 
authorized  the  governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  council,  to  appoint  some  suitable  person  to 
make  a  geological  examination  of  the  commonwealth. 
President  Hitchcock,  then  professor  in  Amherst  Col 
lege,  was  appointed  to  make  the  survey,  the  final 
report  of  which  was  presented  to  the  legislature  in 
1839,  and  the  whole  published  in  two  quarto  vol 
umes  of  830  pages. 

The  survey  of  Maine  was  commenced  in  1836, 
under  the  direction  of  Charles  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston, 
arid  completed  in  1839.  The  survey  of  New  York 
was  commenced  in  the  same  year  by  Lieutenant  W. 
W.  Mather,  T.  A.  Conrad,  Professor  Emmons,  of 
Williams  College,  and  Professor  Vanuxem,  in  which 
they  were  engaged  about  ten  years.  Professor  Va 
nuxem  died  January  25,  1848.  The  reports  of  the 
Ne\v  York  survey,  including  all  departments  of  natu 
ral  history,  have  been  published  in  18  vols.  8vo.,  a 
work  of  great  value. 

The  survey  of  Ohio  was  also  commenced  in  1836, 
by  Dr.  S.  P.  Hildreth,  and  of  Pennsylvania,  by  Pro 
fessor  H.  D.  Rogers.  Most  of  the  states  have  since 
been  minutely  surveyed,  and  a  valuable  fund  of  in 
formation  treasured  up. 

Our  colleges  and  academies  are  now  furnished  with 
valuable  collections  of  mineralogical  and  geological 
specimens,  of  which  there  were  none  fifty  years  ago ; 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  241 

and  in  all  of  them  more  or  less  instruction  in  these 
branches  is  now  given. 

The  following  sketch  of  some  useful  minerals  and 
valuable  metals  that  have  been  found  within  a  few, 
years  in  the  United  States,  is  deemed  worthy  of  a 
place  in  this  volume :  — 

Coal.  —  This  article,  now  so  extensively  used  for 
fuel,  attracted  very  little  attention  until  1820.  It 
was  known  to  exist  in  Pennsylvania  a  century  ago, 
and  some  individuals  succeeded  in  burning  it.  About 
the  year  1800,  William  Morris,  the  owner  of  a  large 
tract  of  land  near  Port  Carbon,  carried  a  quantity  of 
anthracite  coal,  taken  from  his  land,  to  Philadelphia, 
but  was  unable  to  bring  it  into  notice.  In  1812, 
Colonel  G.  Shoemaker  carried  nine  wagon  loads  to 
Philadelphia,  and  spent  much  time  in  endeavoring  to 
persuade  the  people  to  buy  it  for  fuel.  Some  at 
tempted  to  use  it,  but,  not  being  successful,  denounced 
the  colonel  as  an  impostor,  who  sold  stones  for  coal. 
It  was  first  successfully  and  profitably  used  in  a 
rolling-mill,  in  Delaware  county,  Pennsylvania. 

The  coal  trade  did  not  commence  until  1820  :  in 
that  year,  365  tons  were  sold. 

In  1821,  1,073  were  sold  ;  in  1825,  the  sales  were 
34,523  tons  ;  in  1835,  they  were  560,758  ;  in  1840, 
they  were  865,460  tons.  The  quantity  consumed 
has  gradually  increased  from  year  to  year.  It  is 
found,  in  great  abundance,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio 
River,  and  in  the  states  of  Illinois  and  Missouri.  It 
is  so  abundant  that  it  is  used  more  or  less  in  all  the 
21 


242  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

states  in  the  Union.  It  has  been  recently  said  that 
the  amount  of  coal  annually  mined  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ohio  and  its  tributaries  is  30,000,000  bushels, 
worth  two  and  a  half  million  dollars  at  the  mines. 
Three  million  bushels  are  now  annually  consumed 
in  New  Orleans.  The  coal  area  of  the  United  States 
is  estimated  at  133,132  square  miles. 

In  the  winter  of  1838-9,  a  coal  mine  near  Miners- 
ville,  Pennsylvania,  was  ignited  by  the  carelessness 
of  one  of  the  miners,  and  continued  to  burn  for  three 
or  four  years,  defying  all  attempts  to  extinguish  it. 
Along  the  line  of  its  course,  the  earth  fell  in,  and 
from  the  yawning  chasms  there  issued  hot  and  sul 
phurous  fumes,  as  from  a  volcano. 

Gold.  —  The  first  notice  of  gold  from  North  Caro 
lina  on  the  records  of  the  United  States  mint  is  dated 
1814.  During  that  year,  $11,000  were  received. 
The  quantity  received  from  that  time  to  1824  did 
not  exceed  $2,500  annually,  though  as  much  more 
may  have  been  sent  to  Europe.  In  1825,  the  North 
Carolina  gold  fever  began  to  rage,  and  between  that 
time  and  1830,  there  were  sometimes  20,000  men 
employed  in  that  and  the  adjacent  states,  digging  for 
the  precious  metal.  As  the  land  was  all  owned  by 
individuals,  those  who  dug  were  obliged  to  obtain 
the  lease  of  a  tract  of  land.  The  gold  was  first  found 
in  Cabarras  county,  but  subsequently  in  several  adja 
cent  counties.  It  extends  from  Virginia  across  North 
Carolina,  into  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  Alabama.  In 
1829,  the  amount  coined  was  $128,000,  and  about 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  243 

the  same  quantity  was  sent  to  Paris.  At  some  times, 
the  weekly  product  of  these  mines  A^as  $100,000,  and 
yet  the  average  amount  collected  by  an  individual  did 
not  exceed  60  cents  per  day.  Some  masses  of  pure 
gold  were  found  weighing  four,  five,  or  six  hundred 
pennyweights.  One  mass,  in  its  crude  state,  weighed 
28  Ibs.  A  poor  man,  in.  Montgomery  county,  found 
a  mine  on  his  own  land,  which  yielded  him  $20,000 
in  a  few  weeks.  In  consequence  of  the  sudden  ele 
vation  from  poverty  to-  independence,  he  became 
partially  deranged. 

The  greatest  gold  excitement  ever  known  followed 
the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  in  the  spring  of 
1848,  on  lands  that  were  about  that  time  ceded  by 
Mexico  to  the  United  States.  The  land  being  the 
property  of  the  United  States,  and  not  of  individuals, 
every  one  felt  himself  at  liberty  to  go  and  dig  where 
he  pleased,  and  as  much  as  he  could  find.  More  than 
$3,000,000  worth  of  gold  was  dug  during  that  year. 
The  news  reached  here  in  November,  and  was  the 
chief  topic  of  conversation,  especially  among  certain 
portions  of  every  community.  In  three  months,  more 
than  8,000  persons  were  on  the  way  to  California. 
Some  went  by  the  way  of  Cape  Horn,  some  by  Chagres 
and  Panama,  some  from  the  Rio  Grande,  through  the 
interior  of  Mexico,  and  others  from  St.  Louis,  across 
the  country,  by  the  way  of  the  Salt  Lake.  In  1850, 
there  is  supposed  to  be  125,000  people  in  California  ; 
many  of  whom  are  from  Europe,  South  America, 
China,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  In  proportion 


244  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

to  the  abundance  of  the  gold  is  the  price  of  all  articles 
needed  by  the  inhabitants.  The  gold  is  abundant, 
diffused  through  a  region  of  country  several  hundred 
miles  in  extent.  Those  who  went  from  the  states 
have  sent  home  already  about  $20,000,000.  Before 
this  account  of  the  matter  shall  find  its  way  to  the 
public,  the  progress  of  events  in  that  region  may  have 
been  such  that  what  I  have  written  will  be  regarded 
as  the  day  of  small  things,  and  worthy  of  little 
notice. 

The  amount  of  California  gold  received  at  the  mint 
in  Philadelphia,  from  December,  1848,  to  July  1,  1850, 
was  $15,750,000,  and  the  amount  received  at  the 
mint  in  New  Orleans,  $5,184,310. 

Copper. — Native  copper  has  been  found  in  trap 
rocks  in  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut.  A  copper 
mine  was  opened,  a  few  years  since,  at  Bristol,  Con 
necticut  ;  it  is  worked  by  300  men,  and  the  net 
profits,  in  1847,  were  estimated  at  $120,000.  The 
richest  copper  mines  known  to  exist  in  the  United 
States  are  in  Michigan,  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Superior,  especially  in  the  Keweenaw  peninsula.  It 
was  known  to  the  French  in  Canada  as  early  as  1640. 
They  opened  some  mines  then,  or  at  a  subsequent 
period.  Very  little  was  known  about  them  to  the 
Americans  generally  till  1844.  Mr.  Charles  T.  Jack 
son,  United  States  geologist,  with  several  assistants, 
commenced  the  exploration  of  the  region  that  year, 
and  continued  it  till  the  close  of  1849.  A  volumi 
nous  report  has  been  published  by  Congress.  In  1845, 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  245 

mining  operations  were  begun  on  a  small  scale  ;  they 
were  increased  in  1846  and  1847.  There  are  many 
companies  digging  copper  on  the  peninsula  and  Isle 
Royale.  The  Cliff  mine,  worked  by  the  Boston  and 
Pittsburg  Company,  is  said  to  be  the  richest.  The 
size  of  some  of  the  masses  of  native  copper  almost 
exceeds  belief.  Some  of  them  weigh  50  tons.  The 
total  product  of  this  mine,  in  1848,  was  830  tons, 
averaging  60  per  cent,  pure  copper.  It  is  supposed 
that  it  will  now  yield  about  1,000  tons.  A  mass  has 
been  found  in  the  Minesota  mine,  which  is  supposed 
to  weigh  250  tons.  The  whole  amount  of  copper 
imported  into  the  states  annually  is  about  5,400  tons. 
Six  such  mines  as  the  Cliff  will  supply  our  market, 
and  render  us  independent  of  other  nations,  so  far  as  a 
supply  of  this  metal  is  concerned. 

There  are  rich  iron  mines  in  the  same  regions,  and, 
in  connection  with  the  copper,  considerable  silver  has 
been  found. 

It  has  been  said,  that  considering  the  facilities  for 
getting  the  silver,  copper,  and  iron,  at  Lake  Superior, 
those  mines  will  be  a  greater  source  of  wealth  to  the 
United  States  than  the  gold  of  California. 

Lead.  —  Great  quantities  of  lead  are  found  in  Mis 
souri,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  and  Northern  Illinois.  The 
great  depots  of  this  metal  are  Herculaneum  and  St. 
Genevieve,  in  Missouri,  and  Galena  and  Dubuque. 
The  lead  mines  of  Missoitri  were  explored  by  School- 
craft,  in  1818  and  1819.  He  estimated  the  annual 
yield  of  the  Missouri  mines,  at  that  time,  at  4,791,334 
21* 


246  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Ibs.      In    1829,    the   mines    about    Galena   yielded 
12,000,000  pounds. 

These  lead  mines  yield  enough  to  supply  the  mar 
kets  of  the  United  States  with  this  article. 


SECTION  5.     Botany. 

MORE  attention  was  given  to  this  branch  of  natural 
history  during  the  last  century  than  to  any  other. 
In  the  latter  part  of  it,  Andrew  Michaux  and  son 
were  sent  to  this  country  by  the  owner  of  a  large 
botanical  garden  in  the  neighborhood  of  Paris,  to 
procure  specimens  of  forest  trees,  shrubs,  and  also  the 
seeds  of  plants  not  found  in  Europe.  They  travelled 
over  most  of  the  territory  that  then  belonged  to  the 
United  States,  examining  and  taking  notes  of  all  the 
plants  they  found.  In  1802,  the  elder  Michaux  pub 
lished  a  volume  on  the  oaks  of  America,  and  prepared 
two  volumes,  in  which  he  described  1700  plants  col 
lected  by  himself.  He  died  in  1803,  and  the  volumes 
were  not  published  till  after  his  decease.  His  son, 
F.  A.  Michaux,  published  five  volumes,  which  were 
republished  in  Philadelphia  in  1817. 

Perhaps  the  progress  of  botanical  studies  may  be 
inferred  from  a  compendious  list  of  botanical  works 
published  by  American  authors. 

In  1814,  a  volume  was  pufilished  in  Paris  by  Fred 
eric  Pursh,  who  had  travelled  in  Canada  and  the 
Northern  States.  The  plants  were  arranged  accord- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  247 

ing  to  the  system  of  Linnseus ;  the  descriptions  were 
brief,  and  have  often  been  quoted  entire  by  American 
authors. 

In  1817,  a  volume  was  published  in  Philadelphia, 
describing  American  grasses.  Its  author  was  Rev.  H. 
Muhlenberg,  a  Lutheran  clergyman  of  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  who  died  before  the  book  was  pub 
lished.  It  was  written  in  Latin,  and  had  then  a 
limited  sale.  Several  years  after,  when  botani 
cal  knowledge  had  increased,  it  became  deservedly 
popular. 

In  1817,  Professor  Amos  Eaton  began  to  lecture 
about  the  country  upon  botany,  and  published  a  man 
ual  for  the  use  of  those  who  attended  his  lectures. 
It  has  been  enlarged,  from  time  to  time,  and  for  ten 
or  fifteen  years  was  the  vade  mecum  of  every  prac 
tical  botanist  in  the  Northern  States.  The  fifth  edi 
tion,  published  in  1833,  described  5267  species  of 
North  American  plants. 

About  the  same  time,  or  not  far  from  1820,  Profes 
sor  NuttaU's  Genera  of  American  Plants  was  given  to 
the  public.  It  is  an  accurate  and  thorough  work,  and 
did  much  to  increase  the  zeal  for  this  department  of 
natural  science. 

In  1818  was  published  Barton's  Flora,  describing 
the  plants  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia. 

In  1821,  Elliot's  Botany  of  the  Southern  States 
began  to  be  published  in  numbers.  When  completed, 
it  formed  two  octavo  volumes.  It  was  an  elaborate 
and  learned  work. 


248  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  1824,  Torrey's  Flora  of  the  Northern  States 
began  to  be  published  in  numbers,  and  was  designed, 
with  Elliot's,  to  furnish  a  complete  description  of  all 
the  plants  then  known  in  the  United  States.  It  is  the 
most  thorough  work  that  has  ever  been  published. 

The  study  of  botany,  about  this  time,  began  to  be 
introduced  pretty  generally  into  colleges  and  acade 
mies,  and  was  considered  an  important  part  of  a  good 
education. 

In  1824,  Dr.  Bigelow's  Florula  Bostoniensis  was 
published. 

The  next  important  era  in  this  branch  of  natural 
science  was  the  republication  of  Dr.  Lindley's  Natu 
ral  System  of  Classification,  and  a  catalogue  of 
American  plants  by  Dr.  J.  Torrey.  This  book,  at 
that  time,  was  the  only  introduction  to  that  system 
in  the  English  language.  Since  then,  this  system 
of  classification  among  scientific  botanists  has  been 
most  popular. 

In  1833  was  published  a  manual  of  botany  of  the 
plants  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  arranged 
according  to  the  natural  system,  written  by  Professor 
L.  C.  Beck,  of  Albany.  In  1841,  a  similar  botany 
of  the  plants  of  the  Southern  States  was  published 
by  Professor  J.  Darby,  of  Georgia. 

In  1836  was  commenced,  in  Philadelphia,  the  pub 
lication  of  two  large  works  in  numbers,  by  Professor 
Rafinesque.  The  first  was  called  Flora  Telluriana, 
being  a  general  botany  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
other  was  the  New  Flora  of  North  American  ^Plants, 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  249 

describing  those  which  had  been  omitted,  or  were 
unknown  to  preceding  authors.  In  1848  was  pub 
lished  Volume  I.  of  Gray's  Genera. 

Some  botanists  have  devoted  much  time  to  the 
examination  of  particular  orders,  or  genera.  On  the 
genus  carex  we  have  had  monographs  by  three  em 
inent  botanists.  One  by  Professor  C.  Dewey  was 
published  in  Silliman's  Journal,  with  plates,  from 
1824  down  to  the  present  time.  One  by  Dr.  Torrey, 
and  another  by  Schweinitz,  were  published  in  the 
New  York  Lyceum  of  Natural  History. 

In  connection  with  the  geological  surveys  of  the 
states  there  have  been  botanical  surveys.  In  the 
reports  of  the  New  York  survey,  some  two  or  three 
large  volumes  are  devoted  to  descriptive  botany. 

Among  the  reports  of  the  Massachusetts  survey 
we  have  an  elaborate  catalogue  of  the  herbaceous 
plants,  by  Professor  Dewey,  with  brief  descriptions, 
making  a  volume  of  268  octavo  pages,  and  also  a 
volume  on  trees  and  shrubs,  of  550  pages,  prepared 
by  G.  B.  Emerson,  of  Boston.  In  1846  was  pub 
lished  Brown's  work  on  the  trees  of  America. 

I  may  add,  in  conclusion,  that  a  manual  of  botany 
by  Mr.  Wood  has  been  published  within  a  few  years, 
and  is  taking  the  place  of  many  of  its  predecessors. 

It  will  be  inferred,  from  the  number  of  books  pub 
lished,  that  much  attention  has  been  given  to  this 
subject  by  the  present  generation. 


250  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


SECTION  6.     Zoology. 

THIS  science  treats  of  animals,  and,  in  common 
with  other  departments,  has  received  no  small  degree 
of  attention  in  this  country.  It  is  divided  into  sev 
eral  departments,  as,  quadrupeds,  birds,  fishes,  reptiles, 
insects,  &c. 

The  persons  who  have  given  most  attention  to 
birds  in  this  country  are  Wilson,  Bonaparte,  and  Au- 
dubon. 

Alexander  Wilson  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and 
by  trade  a  weaver.  He  came  to  this  country  in 
1794,  being  then  twenty-eight  years  old.  He  learned 
the  art  of  drawing,  and  conceived  the  design  of 
painting  and  describing  all  the  birds  of  America. 
During  seven  years,  he  travelled  more  than  ten  thou 
sand  miles,  "  a  solitary,  exploring  pilgrim."  His 
labors  were  rewarded  with  no  worldly  riches  or  hon 
ors  ;  the  only  remuneration  he  received  for  his  splen 
did  work  was  the  pay  for  coloring  the  pictures.  In 
1808,  he  published  the  first  volume  at  Philadelphia. 
Before  his  death,  in  1813,  he  published  seven  vol 
umes.  In  1814,  Mr.  Ord  published  two  more  vol 
umes,  containing  the  remainder  of  those  birds  Wilson 
had  found,  and  a  sketch  of  his  life. 

Between  1825  and  1828,  Charles  Lucien  Bonaparte 
published  three  volumes  of  birds  not  described  by 
Wilson.  These  were  thin  folio  volumes ;  the  pic 
tures  of  the  birds  were  less  than  in  real  life. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  251 

John  J.  Audubon  is  a  native  of  this  country,  though 
of  French  descent.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  for  his 
education,  which  he  completed,  and  returned  to 
America,  when  he  was  seventeen  years  old,  near  the 
close  of  the  last  century.  He  had  .early  acquired  a 
fondness  for  ornithology,  and  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  drawing  birds  and  learning  their  habits.  In 
1810,  he  was  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  and  there  met 
Wilson,  to  whom  he  showed  his  portfolio  of  draw 
ings.  Wilson  was  getting  subscribers  to  his  work. 
Audubon  did  not  subscribe ;  he  was  told  by  a  friend 
that  his  own  drawings  were  better  than  Wilson's. 
Audubon  did  not  form  the  intention  of  publishing 
his  work  till  1824.  He  could  find  no  one  in  this 
country  who  would  undertake  the  publication  of  it, 
and  went  to  Europe  and  made  a  contract  with  a  pub 
lishing  house  in  Edinburgh.  His  drawings  are  as 
large  as  life,  and  represent  almost  five  hundred  birds ; 
and,  to  fill  up  the  sheet,  he  has  inserted  in  each  beau 
tiful  pictures  of  the  plants  on  which  the  bird  feeds, 
or  which  abound  where  it  is  found.  The  plates  are 
almost  as  valuable  for  the  pictures  of  plants  as  of 
birds.  These  plates  were  accompanied  by  a  volume 
describing  the  habits  of  the  birds,  and  many  facts, 
both  amusing  and  useful.  The  copper  plates  from 
which  these  birds  were  printed  were  destroyed  by  the 
great  fire  in  New  York  in  1835. 

In  1840,  he  commenced  the  publication  of  his 
Ornithology  in  numbers,  each  containing  the  descrip 
tion  of  five  birds,  and  a  miniature  picture  of  each, 


252  THE  HALF  CENTURY- 

beautifully  colored.  This  was  completed  in  about 
four  years,  and  forms  seven  large  volumes,  which 
sell  at  one  hundred  dollars. 

Mr.  Audubon  is  still  living,  supposed  to  be  about 
seventy  years  of  age,  but  infirm  and  worn  down  by 
the  severity  of  his  labors. 

There  are  many  individuals,  in  different  parts  of 
our  country,  who  collect  and  preserve  birds,  and 
carry  on  exchanges  with  ornithologists  in  other 
countries. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  other 
departments  of  zoology  by  the  lyceums  of  natural 
history  and  by  individuals.  W.  T.  Harris  has  given 
much  attention  to  insects,  has  made  a  large  collection, 
and  published  a  report  of  450  pages  octavo.,  on  the 
insects  of  Massachusetts  that  are  injurious  to  vege 
tation. 

The  number  of  animals  known  and  described  are 
as  follows :  — 


Mammals,  1,500 

Birds,  5,000 

Reptiles,  1,600 

Fishes,  6,000 


Mollusks,  (shell  fish,)  9,000 

Insects,  70,000 

Radiata,  10,000 


Total,  103,000 


SECTION  7.     Meteorological  Observations. 

THE  American  people  are  remarkably  weatherwise. 
There  is  no  subject  about  which  they  oftener  speak, 
nor  any  about  which  they  seem  to  have  a  more 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  253 

perfect  knowledge ;  and  yet  that  knowledge  is  often 
superficial.  There  have  been  some  accurate  and 
careful  observers ;  a  few  have  taken  notes  and  kept 
records  of  the  temperature,  storms,  and  prevailing 
winds. 

These  records,  however,  have  seldom  been  printed, 
until  within  about  thirty  years.  It  is  now  difficult 
to  gather  up  any  satisfactory  account  of  this  matter 
during  the  first  twenty  years  of  the  last  half  century. 
Within  twenty-five  years,  there  has  been  a  great  in 
crease  of  attention  to  this  subject.  Scientific  men 
have  kept  meteorological  journals,  which  have  been 
published  from  year  to  year  in  Silliman's  Journal. 
The  American  Almanac  has  of  late  years  contained 
a  valuable  fund  of  information  on  this  subject.  The 
state  of  New  York  has,  for  a  few  years,  required  all 
the  colleges  and  academies  in  the  state  to  keep  me 
teorological  registers,  which  are  returned  annually  to 
the  superintendent  of  schools,  and  published  with  the 
school  statistics.  Public  attention  has  been  so  thor 
oughly  called  to  the  importance  of  this  subject,  and 
men  of  science  are  now  recording  so  many  facts,  that 
in  future  there  will  be  an  abundance  of  material  to 
satisfy  the  wishes  of  those  who  may  propose  to  write 
a  history  of  meteorological  phenomena. 

I  have  gathered  from  various  sources  a  few  items, 
which  may  be  of  some  interest  to  the  general  reader, 
and  are  deemed  worthy  of  being  preserved. 

The  following  table  gives  the  warmest  and  coldest 
day  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  century,  at  New 
22 


254 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


Haven,  Connecticut,  and  also  the  time  of  the  flower 
ing  of  peach-trees  and  apple-trees  :  — 


Year. 

Wannest. 

Coldest. 

Peach. 

Apple. 

1801 

June  23 

100° 

Jan.    29 

0° 

April  26 

May    6 

1802 

July  23 

94 

Feb.  23 

0 

"     30 

5 

1803 

"     25 

96 

Jan.    29 

4 

"     22 

5 

1804 

"     10 

94 

"     22 

2 

May      3 

9 

1805 

June  20 

100 

"       4 

-4 

April  23 

2 

1806 

"     24 

90 

"     18 

0 

May      6 

14 

1807 

»       9 

92 

«     14 

3 

"      11 

19 

1808 
1809 

July     1 
June  28 

96 
95 

»     16 
Feb.     9 

0 
-5 

April  23 
May      6 

1 
16 

1810 

"     20 

93 

Jan.    20 

0 

April  26 

4 

February  21,  1802,  the  snow  began  to  fall,  and 
continued  without  much  cessation  for  a  week.  In 
the  southern  part  of  Connecticut,  it  was  a  mixture  of 
sleet  and  snow,  and  was  four  feet  deep.  In  New 
Hampshire  and  Maine  it  was  about  eight  feet  in 
depth.  The  mail  stage  was  four  days  going  from 
New  York  to  New  Haven,  76  miles. 

The  summer  of  1804  was  unusually  cold  ;  in  many 
places  in  Massachusetts,  there  was  frost  in  July.  On 
the  19th  of  August,  and  again  on  the  9th  and  10th 
of  October,  the  wind  blew  with  great  violence 
in  New  England,  uprooting  trees  and  unroofing 
buildings. 

The  summers  of  1805  and  1806  were  unusually 
dry  ;  and,  of  1807,  1808,  arid  1809,  exceedingly  wet, 
and  the  latter  very  cold. 

January  18,  1810,  there  was  a  severe  snow  storm; 
the  wind  blew  like  a  hurricane :  the  next  day  it  was 
clear,  and  the  cold  intense  :  it  was,  for  many  years, 
called  the  cold  Friday. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY-  255 

September  22  and  23,  1815,  there  was  a  memor 
able  storm  of  wind  and  rain  throughout  the  Atlantic 
states ;  the  salt  water  of  the  ocean  was  converted  into 
spray,  and  blown  into  the  country  30,  and  in  some 
places,  50  miles,  in  quantities  sufficient  to  destroy  the 
foliage  of  the  trees.  The  loss  of  property  on  the 
coast  of  New  England  was  estimated  at  one  and  a 
half  millions  of  dollars. 

During  the  first  half  of  January,  1816,  the  weather 
was  extremely  cold.  At  Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
on  the  morning  of  the  llth,  the  mercury  fell  11  de 
grees  below  0.  The  summer  of  that  year  is  still 
remembered  as  the  cold  summer.  There  were  frosts 
in  Massachusetts  during  each  of  the  summer  months, 
and,  in  low  grounds,  pretty  severe.  On  the  moun 
tains  of  Berkshire,  on  the  6th  of  June,  the  snow  fell 
several  inches  in  depth,  and  travellers  suffered  much 
from  the  severity  of  the  storm.  The  snow  was  ten 
inches  deep  in  the  central  part  of  Vermont  and  New 
Hampshire.  On  the  morning  of  July  4,  ice  was 
formed  of  the  thickness  of  common  window  glass  in 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  and  much  of  the 
corn  was  killed.  August  was  a  most  cheerless  month ; 
ice  was  formed  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  cold 
extended  to  Europe.  Some  of  the  English  papers 
said,  "  1816  will  be  remembered  as  the  year  in  which 
there  was  no  summer."  The  coldest  days  in  August 
were  the  13th,  14th,  and  29th.  Yery  little  corn 
ripened  that  year.  Farmers  paid  five  dollars  a  bushel 
for  seed  corn  the  next  spring. 


256  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

January  17,  1817,  there  was  a  remarkable  thunder 
shower,  which  extended  from  Quebec  to  Georgia, 
and  was  accompanied  in  some  places  with  snow. 
The  lightning  was  very  vivid,  and  almost  incessant  ; 
luminous  matter  collected  on  the  tops  of  posts,  on  the 
ears  of  animals,  and  on  all  prominent  pointed  objects. 

The  month  of  February,  in  both  1817  and  1818, 
was  very  cold.  On  the  morning  of  the  llth  of  the 
latter  year,  the  mercury  at  Williamstown,  Massachu 
setts,  was  22°  below  0,  and  at  Deerfield,  25°  below  0. 

The  winter  of  1819  was  unusually  warm  in  New 
England  ;  many  farmers  in  the  valley  of  the  Con 
necticut  ploughed  their  fields  in  January ;  flies  were 
abroad. 

May  11,  1820,  it  began  to  rain,  and  continued  to 
rain,  with  the  exception  of  scarcely  a  day,  till  June 
1.  There  was  very  little  rain,  after  that,  till  the  last 
of  August.  The  drought  was  severe  through  the 
country ;  the  grasshopper  was  a  burden ;  in  many 
places  it  became  necessary  to  feed  cattle  with  hay 
to  keep  them  alive. 

January  25,  1821,  the  mercury  sunk  14°  below  0 
at  New  Haven ;  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  26°  below 
0 ;  and  in  Maine,  35°  below  0.  Professor  Silliman 
said,  in  his  Journal  of  Science,  that  it  was  the  coldest 
winter  in  that  city  of  which  they  had  any  record. 

July,  1825,  was  exceedingly  hot.  At  Williams- 
town,  Massachusetts,  the  mercury  was  above  90° 
every  day  from  the  10th  to  the  23d,  on  which  day 
it  was  98°.  The  13th  was  the  hottest  day  of  the 


THE  HALF   CENTURY. 


257 


year.  At  Hartford,  the  mercury  rose  to  102°  in  the 
shade  ;  in  Boston,  to  100° ;  in  Albany,  to  98° ;  and  in 
Montreal,  to  91°. 

The  morning  of  February  1,  1826^was  the  coldest 
that  winter.  It  is  not  known  that  the  mercury,  over 
so  large  an  extent  of  country,  has  sunk  so  low  as  it 
did  that  morning.  At  Montreal,  it  was  38°  below  0  ; 
at  Hallowell,  Maine,  30°  ;  at  Amherst,  Massachusetts, 
24° ;  at  Springfield,  18° ;  at  Westfield,  17° ;  at  New 
Bedford,  35° ;  at  Keene,  New  Hampshire,  28° ;  and  at 
Wilmington,  Delaware,  26°  below  0. 

The  following  table  gives  the  warmest  and  coldest 
day,  at  different  places,  for  a  series  of  years,  from 
1827  to  1850.  I  have  given,  for  most  of  the  years, 
the  warmest  and  coldest  days  at  two  or  more  places, 
at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from-  each  other,  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  comparative  temperatures. 


Place. 

Year.     |                 Coldest. 

Warmest. 

New  Haven,  Conn., 

1827 

January  21,      -7 

August  6, 

93 

Marietta,  Ohio, 

" 

February  12,    -6 

July  1, 

96 

New  Haven, 

1828 

January  12,        6 

July  2, 

90 

Marietta, 

<« 

January  10,      10 

June  26, 

94 

« 

1829 

February  23,      2 

May  29, 

94 

New  Fane,  Vermont, 

t< 

January  11,    -22 

July  21, 

88 

«                   « 

1830 

December  22,-12 

July  21, 

94 

Marietta, 

« 

February  3,      -4 

(  July  19, 
I  Aug.  19, 

94 

New  Fane, 

1831 

February  14,  -10 

August  15, 

94 

Rochester,  New  York, 

« 

February  7,      -4 

June  3, 

95 

«                   « 

1832 

January  27,      -6 

June  25, 

88 

New  Fane, 

« 

January  19,    -20 

Julv  6, 

93 

Rochester,  New  York, 

1833 

January  17,      -4 

July  21, 

91 

«                  « 

1834 

January  4,      -10 

July  9, 

95 

<{                  « 

1835 

February  3,      -3 

June  11, 

90 

«                  « 

1836 

February  2,      -5 

July  19, 

87 

«                  « 

1837 

February  13,      2 

July  13, 

88 

Dover,  N.  Hampshire, 

« 

January  4,      -18 

July  1, 

95 

22* 

258 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


Place. 

Year. 

C'oMesf. 

Warmest. 

Key  West, 

1837 

January  4,        50 

July  30, 

88 

Natchez,  Miss., 

1838 

February  3,      37 

June  25, 

85 

Hudson,  Ohio, 

ii 

February  25,    -8 

July  27, 

92 

«           <t 

1839 

March  4,           -6 

July  30, 

88 

Albany, 

<i 

January  24,    -12 

June  19, 

92 

Newburg, 

ii 

February  2,      -5 

July  14, 

88 

ii 

1840 

January  1,        -6 

July  21, 

89 

Albany, 

11 

January  17,    -23 

July  6, 

96 

Mendon,  Mass., 

i< 

January  17,    -10 

July  16, 

96 

ti          « 

1841 

January  5,        -9 

June  30, 

93 

mica, 

« 

January  4,      -10 

July  24, 

96 

<i 

1842 

December  22,-l4 

July  13, 

93 

Mendon, 

u 

January  6,        -3 

July  30, 

90 

M 

1843 

February  10,    -8 

July  1, 

91 

Utica, 

«< 

February  18,    -5 

June  23, 

90 

Lambertsville,  N.  J., 

1844 

January  28,        0 

July  14, 

94 

Mendon, 

u 

January  26,      -8 

June  27, 

90 

M 

1845 

February  2,      -3 

July  15, 

92 

Albany, 

« 

December  12,-11 

July  13, 

97 

Lambertsville, 

1846 

February  27,    -1 

July  11, 

96 

Mendon, 

ii 

February  27,    -4 

July  11, 

93 

« 

1847 

February  24,      0 

July  20, 

92 

Natchez,  Miss., 

<« 

January  7,        40 

August  5, 

86 

New  York, 

ii 

January  13,      11 

July  18, 

93 

ii 

1848 

January  10,        5 

June  16, 

89 

Mendon, 

« 

January  11,      -9 

June  17, 

92 

Lambertsville, 

1849 

January  11,      -6 

June  22, 

97 

Savannah,  Georgia, 

i< 

February  19,    20 

The  following  table  gives  the  times  of  the  flower 
ing  of  the  peach  and  apple  for  twenty  successive 
years,  at  Roxbury,  Massachusetts :  — 


Year. 

Peach. 

Apple. 

Year. 

Peach. 

Apple. 

1813 

May  12 

May  23 

1824 

May  4 

May  11 

1815 

«  11 

"  27 

1825 

Ap.  28 

»   8 

1816 

"   5 

"  18 

1826 

"   16 

«  12 

1817 

"   6 

"  12 

1827 

"   30 

.1   7 

1818 

"  11 

"  26 

1828 

1819 

"  27 

1829 

"  15 

1820 

"  11 

1830 

"   26 

1821 

"   9 

u  17 

1831 

«   18 

"   6 

1822 

ii   4 

"   9 

1832 

"  15 

1823 

«  12 

"  19 

1833 

"   29 

THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


259 


The  following  table  shows  the  time  in  which  the 
peach  and  apple  flowered  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States,  in  1834:  — 


Place. 

Peach. 

Apple. 

Eatonton,  Georgia, 
Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
Knoxville  Tennessee, 
Baltimore, 
Perryville,  Mo., 
Detroit,  Michigan, 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
Concord,  XCAV  Hampshire, 

February  12 
"         18 
March          8 
April           1 
March        30 
April          15 
April         25 
May           12 

March        10 
April           1 
March       28 
May           10 
April          10 
May             1 
7 
23 

The  difference  in  temperature  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Hudson  and  Connecticut  Rivers  may  be  learned  from 
the  times  when  the  rivers  freeze  over  and  break  up. 


Year. 

Conn,  closed. 

Hudson  closed. 

CO/HI,  open. 

Hudson  open. 

1817 

December  23 

December    7 

March        25 

1818 

12 

14 

March          3 

April            3 

1819 

11 

13 

19 

March        25 

1821 

15 

13 

"              4 

15 

1823 

9 

16 

12 

3 

1825 

13 

13 

January        1 

February  26 

1828 

31 

23 

February     7 

April             1 

1830 

22 

23 

March          9 

March         15 

1832 

22 

21 

10 

21 

1835 

November  29 

November  30 

16 

April             4 

In  1806,  the  Hudson  River  froze  over  January  9, 
and  was  open  February  20.  The  navigation  was 
obstructed  only  42  days,  which  is  the  shortest  time 
it  was  ever  known  to  be  closed  by  ice. 

In  1836,  it  opened  April  4,  having  been  frozen  125 
days,  which  is  the  longest  time  its  navigation  is 
known  to  have  been  obstructed  by  ice. 

In  1806,  the  Connecticut  River  was  frozen  over  46 
days ;  and,  in  1836,  it  was  open  April  2,  having  been 
closed  125  days. 


260 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


The  following  table  will  show  the  different  quan 
tities  of  rain  at  different  places,  in  inches,  for  several 
successive  years  :  — 


Philadelphia, 
HuntsviUe,  Alabama, 
Albany,  New  York, 
Providence,  R.  I., 

183  1. 

183-2. 

1833. 

1834. 

183:.. 

1836. 

44 
43 
39 

40 
46 
44 
39 

48 
67 
41 
34 

34 

63 
32 
42 

39 
60 
40 
30 

42 
54 
44 
38 

Often,  the  difference  in  the  quantity  of  rain  is  very 
great,  and  quite  unaccountable  ;  thus,  in  1847,  the 
quantity  reported  to  have  fallen  at  Natchez  was  75 
inches,  and  at  Muscatine,  Iowa,  on  the  same  river, 
though  far  north,  only  26  inches.  In  1827,  there 
fell,  in  New  Haven,  51  inches;  in  Philadelphia,  the 
same  year,  only  38  inches. 

In  some  years,  there  is  a  remarkable  uniformity  in 
the  quantity  of  rain  ;  thus,  from  July  1,  1847,  to 
July  1,  1848,  the  quantity  that  fell  in  Saco,  Maine, 
was  44  inches;  in  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  43 
inches  ;  and  in  Lambertsville,  N.  J.  46  inches. 

The  year  1845  was  distinguished  by  a  drought, 
that  prevailed  in  most  of  the  states  east  of  the  Missis 
sippi  River. 

January  and  February  of  1849  were  distinguished 
for  being  uniformly,  though  not  intensely,  cold. 

May  12,  1849,  there  was  a  crevasse,  or  break,  in 
the  levee  of  the  Mississippi  River,  at  Sauve's  planta 
tion,  14  miles  above  New  Orleans,  which  was  not 
stopped  until  June  12.  It  overflowed  a  large  tract 
of  country,  deluged  160  squares  in  the  eastern  part 
of  New  Orleans,  on  which  there  were  1,600  houses, 
occupied  by  8,000  persons. 


THE   HALF  CENTUKY.  261 

The  plan  of  extended  observations  proposed  and 
already  commenced  by  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  it 
is  believed  rnay  result  in  the  discovery  of  some  laws 
and  principles  in  meteorology,  that  will  be  of  great 
service.  The  magnetic  telegraph  is  likely  to  afford 
important  aid  in  this  matter.  If  a  storm  commences 
in  one  part  of  the  United  States,  the  fact  may  be 
communicated  to  all  the  cities  along  the  coast,  prior 
to  the  coming  of  the  storm,  and  vessels,  and  other 
property  that  is  exposed  to  its  ravages,  put  in  a  state 
of  greater  security. 


SECTION  8.     Phrenology. 

IN  the  Christian  Spectator,  (quarterly  series,)  vol 
ume  vi.,  page  498,  may  be  found  the  following  para 
graph  :  "  Phrenology  is  a  child  of  recent  birth,  the 
offspring  of  the  present  inquiring  and  revolutionary 
age.  It  began  its  existence,  as  an  infant,  in  the  lat 
ter  part  of  the  last  century,  in  Germany.  During  its 
early  childhood,  it  was  under  the  fostering  care  of 
Dr.  Gall,  a  physician  of  Vienna  j  but  in  1804,  while 
yet  a  mere  stripling,  unfriended  and  unknown,  it  fell 
under  the  joint  charge  of  Dr.  Gall  and  a  fellow-Ger 
man,  Dr.  Spurzheim.  Under  the  protection,  and  by 
the  extraordinary  efforts  of  these  two  toilsome  and 
indefatigable  men,  it  has  grown  to  something  like  the 
stature,  if  not  the  strength,  of  manhood.  It  can 
now,  after  parental  care  has  been  withdrawn,  when  the 


THE    HALF  CENTURY. 

guardians  of  its  minority  have  been  removed  by 
death,  not  only  stand  alone,  as  its  friends  declare,  but 
can  walk,  and  defend  itself,  and  even  beat  its  ene 
mies." 

This  new  science,  ever  since  the  promulgation  of 
it,  has  had  to  encounter  much  opposition.  It  has 
been  assailed  by  argument  and  ridicule,  but  has  been 
defended  by  its  friends  with  great  zeal  and  enthusi 
asm. 

John  J.  Gall  was  born  in  the  kingdom  of  Wurtem- 
berg,  in  1758,  and  died  at  Vienna,  in  1828.  He 
observed  that  boys  in  school,  who  had  large  eyes, 
excelled  in  memory,  which  suggested  the  idea,  that 
the  strength  of  different  faculties  depended  on  the 
formation  of  certain  parts  of  the  head.  He  collected 
skulls,  and  compared  the  prominences  common  to  all, 
and  those  by  which  one  was  distinguished  from 
another.  By  long  attention  to  this  subject,  he  located 
about  twenty  organs,  which  he  regarded  as  the  seat 
of  so  many  different  mental  faculties. 

Gaspard  Spurzheim  was  born  in  Germany,  in  1776, 
and  studied  medicine  at  Vienna,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Dr.  Gall.  They  studied  together  the 
anatomy  of  the  brain.  In  1807,  they  went  to  Paris. 
and  lectured  on  their  favorite  science,  arid  pursued 
their  investigations  still  further.  In  1810,  they  pub 
lished  An  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Nervous 
System  in  general,  and  of  the  Brain  in  particular. 

In  1814,  Spurzheim  lectured  in  England,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland.  Their  theory  was,  that  the  brain  con- 


IT 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

sists  of  a  congeries  of  organs,  in  the  shape  of  cones, 
the  bases  of  which  press  upon  the  skull  ;  that,  by  the 
exercise  of  a  given  faculty,  the  cone,  which  is  the 
seat  of  it,  becomes  enlarged,  and  produces  an  eleva 
tion  of  the  skull ;  and  that,  by  an  examination  of  the 
exterior  surface  of  the  skull,  the  most  vigorous  or 
most  highly  cultivated  faculties  of  the  mind  may  be 
ascertained. 

Spurzheim  came  to  America  in  September,  1832, 
and  commenced  a  course  of  lectures  at  Boston,  and 
another  at  Cambridge  ;  but  before  he  had  completed 
his  course,  he  was  taken  sick,  and  died  November 
10,  1832.  He  was  buried  at  Mount  Auburn.  His 
works  were  published  in  Boston  the  same  year,  and 
also  a  system  of  phrenology  by  George  Combe,  of 
Scotland,  another  professor  of  this  science,  who  vis 
ited  America  in  1839  and  1840,  and  lectured  with 
great  applause  in  many  cities.  The  labors  and  writ 
ings  of  these  men  gave  the  subject  considerable  pop 
ularity  ;  though  men  of  science  have,  for  the  most 
part,  expressed  themselves  with  great  caution  respect 
ing  it. 

Between  1830  and  1840,  the  country  was  traversed 
by  a  host  of  lecturers,  who  labored  to  instruct  the 
people  in  the  mysteries  of  this  new  science,  and 
who  examined  the  heads  of  all  who  desired  to  know 
their  contents,  or  their  peculiar  gifts. 

Whatever  of  truth  there  may  be  in  this  science,  it 
is  manifest  that  a  prejudice  would  be  created  against 
it,  by  the  fact  that  a  majority  of  these  lecturers  were 


264  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

young  men,  often  students,  who  had  very  little,  if 
any,  knowledge  of  intellectual  science,  or  of  any 
other.  They  engaged  in  the  business  for  the  purpose 
of  defraying  their  travelling  expenses,  and  to  add  a 
little  to  their  funds  for  future  use.  It  was  not  to  be 
expected  that  men  of  science  and  ripe  scholars  would 
sit  at  the  feet  of  these  tyros,  and  receive  their 
instruction. 

I  do  not  assert  that  all  the  advocates  of  phrenology 
are,  or  have  been,  men  of  little  erudition ;  but  it  is 
true  that  so  many  of  those  who  have  been  going  up 
and  down  in  the  earth,  expounding  its  principles, 
have  been  so  deficient  in  their  knowledge  of  intel 
lectual  science,  that  it  has  led  scientific  men  to  look 
upon  the  whole  matter  with  distrust. 

Many  of  the  lecturers  have  so  spoken  upon  the 
subject,  as  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  mind  was  a 
kind  of  material  organism ;  which  has  led  many  reli 
gious  men  to  regard  it  as  a  germ  of  infidelity,  and 
that  the  less  they  had  to  do  with  it  the  better. 

Its  friends  have  injured  it  by  claiming  too  much 
for  it.  It  has  been  represented  as  a  science  all-im 
portant  to  the  teacher  and  parent,  and  not  entirely 
useless  to  the  judge  on  the  bench,  in  ascertaining  the 
bias  of  the  criminal's  mind,  who  is  placed  before 
him  to  be  tried. 

There  are  some  eminent  men  who  have  faith  in 
its  teachings,  and  many  who  have  not.  There  are 
many  who  think  its  teachings  uncertain,  and  unwor 
thy  of  being  dignified  with  the  name  of  science. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  265 

There  are  a  few,  a  very  few,  who  pursue  it  still,  and 
advocate  its  doctrines  ;  but  the  number  of  itinerant 
lecturers  has  greatly  diminished  for  a  few  years 
past. 

If  we  take  away  from  this  science  all  that  properly 
belongs  to  anatomy  and  physiology,  and  all  that  has 
been  borrowed  from  treatises  on  education  or  intel 
lectual  philosophy,  how  much  will  be  left  ?  What 
practical  principle  has  it  discovered  ?  It  has  been  in 
vestigated  and  examined  for  fifty  years,  and  what 
important  change  has  it  wrought?  What  good  has 
it  done  ?  In  what  walk  of  usefulness  can  its  foot 
steps  be  traced  ?  It  is  passing  strange  that  a  science, 
worthy  of  the  name,  has  not  in  fifty  years  showed 
itself  to  be  in  some  way  highly  beneficial.  See  what 
electro-magnetism,  which  is  not  half  as  old,  has  done. 
She  has  taught  men  to  converse  with  each  other, 
when  a  thousand  miles  apart,  almost  as  if  they  were 
in  the  same  room.  She  sends  us  every  morning  a 
notice  of  any  important  event  that  has  occurred  be 
tween  Halifax  and  New  Orleans  the  day  previous. 

That  phrenologists  are  able  to  form  some  opinion 
about  a  man's  intellect  by  examining  the  surface  of 
his  head,  I  do  not  deny ;  but  how  much  better  all 
this  can  be  ascertained  by  a  few  minutes  spent  in 
free  conversation.  I  suppose  that  a  man  who  shall 
devote  himself  for  years  to  the  examination  of  hands 
or  noses,  would  discover  many  signs  by  which  he 
could  form  a  pretty  accurate  opinion  of  character. 
23 


THE   HALF  CENTURY. 


SECTION  9.      The  Smithsonian  Institute. 

DECEMBER  17,  1835,  the  president  of  the  United 
States  communicated  to  Congress  the  fact  that  JAMES 
SMITHSON,  of  London,  who  died  about  1827,  at 
Genoa,  had  bequeathed  the  reversion  of  his  whole 
estate  to  the  United  States  of  America,  to  "  found  at 
Washington,  under  the  name  of  the  SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTE,  an  establishment  for  the  increase  and  dif 
fusion  of  knowledge  among  men."  By  an  act  of 
Congress,  July  1,  1836,  the  bequest  was  accepted, 
and  the  faith  of  the  United  States  pledged  to  a  due 
application  of  the  fund  to  the  purposes  of  the  be 
quest.  Mr.  Richard  Rush  was  sent  to  England  to 
collect  and  receive  the  money,  and,  on  his  return,  he 
deposited  in  the  mint  at  Philadelphia  $508,318.46, 
which,  by  the  authority  of  Congress,  was  vested  in 
state  stocks. 

Mr.  Smithson  is  said  to  have  been  the  natural  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  his  mother  a 
Mrs.  Macie,  of  Wiltshire,  of  the  family  of  Hunger- 
ford.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  an 
honorary  degree  in  1786.  He  went  under  the  name 
of  James  Lewis  Macie ;  but  after  leaving  the  universi 
ty,  he  took  the  name  of  Smithson,  and  ever  after 
signed  his  name  James  Smithson.  He  does  not 
appear  to  have  had  any  fixed  place  of  abode,  but  took 
lodgings  for  a  year  or  two  at  a  time  in  London,  Paris, 
Berlin,  Florence,  or  Genoa,  as  inclination  prompted. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  267 

He  led  a  retired  life,  was  simple  in  his  habits,  cour 
teous  and  reserved  in  his  manners  and  conversation. 
His  health  was  feeble ;  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  science,  and  particularly  to  chemistry.  He 
was  an  acquaintance  of  Cavendish  and  Wollaston, 
and  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  to  the  archives 
of  which  he  made  contributions.  His  property  was 
given  him  by  his  reputed  father,  which  accumulated 
in  his  hands,  inasmuch  as  he  never  expended  the 
interest. 

He  was  supposed  to  be  in  favor  of  a  monarchical 
form  of  government ;  and  why  he  should  have  made 
the  United  States  a  trustee  of  his  property  is  not 
known.  His  name  will  be  cherished  by  posterity  as 
one  of  the  greatest  benefactors  of  his  race.  It  is 
worthy  of  notice  that  he  did  not  give  his  money  for 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  Americans,  but 
"  among  men ;  "  the  institution  is  founded  for  the 
benefit  of  the  world. 

It  was  not  till  August  10,  1846,  that  Congress 
made  provision  for  carrying  into  execution  the  will 
of  the  donor.  The  fund,  however,  was  on  interest 
for  ten  years  at  five  per  cent.,  which  was  $250,000. 
The  corporation  consists  of  the  president  and  vice- 
president,  the  secretaries,  the  chief  justice,  and  mayor 
of  Washington,  together  with  such  other  persons  as 
they  may  elect  honorary  members.  The  financial 
and  other  affairs  are  intrusted  to  a  board  of  regents, 
which  consists  of  the  vice-president,  chief  justice, 
and  mayor  of  Washington,  three  senators  appointed 


268  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

by  the  senate,  three  members  of  the  house  appoint 
ed  by  that  body,  and  six  citizens  at  large,  appointed 
by  a  joint  resolution  of  both  houses  of  Congress. 
This  board  elect  a  secretary,  who  is,  in  fact,  the  pri~ 
mum  mobile  of  the  institution. 

Professor  Henry,  LL.  D.,  of  Nassau  Hall,  holds 
that  office,  and  Professor  C.  C.  Jevvet,  of  Brown  Uni 
versity,  is  his  assistant. 

In  February,  1847,  proposals  were  received  for  the 
erection  of  the  buildings  for  the  use  of  the  institu 
tion,  to  consist  of  a  central  building  204  feet  long, 
56  feet  wide,  and  57  feet  high ;  two  connecting 
ranges,  each  60  feet  long,  49  feet  wide,  and  28  feet 
high ;  and  two  wings,  the  east  one  80  feet  long,  50 
feet  wide,  and  43  feet  high,  the  west  one  76  feet 
long,  36  feet  wide,  and  42  feet  high,  with  several 
towers,  the  highest  of  which  is  140  feet. 

The  estimated  cost  is  $250,000  ;  but  it  was  pro 
posed  to  finish  one  of  the  wings,  and  not  complete 
the  whole  structure  until  1852.  By  that  time  the 
interest  will  have  paid  for  the  building,  and  the  per 
manent  fund  will  then  be  $650,000.  One  half  of 
the  income  of  the  fund  the  regents  have  determined 
to  expend  in  increasing  and  diffusing  knowlege,  and 
the  other  half  in  the  gradual  formation  of  a  library, 
a  museum,  and  a  gallery  of  art.  It  is  their  purpose 
to  increase  knowledge  by  encouraging  original  dis 
coveries,  and  by  offering  premiums,  from  time  to 
time,  for  original  papers  containing  positive  additions 
to  human  knowledge.  These,  together  with  other 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  269 

suitable  papers,  are  to  be  published  periodically,  or 
occasionally,  in  quarto  volumes  or  numbers,  to  be 
entitled  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge. 
There  are  "also  to  be  free  lectures,  by  the  secretary 
and  others,  at  stated  periods,  giving  an  account  of 
new  discoveries.  The  first  volume  of  Contributions 
to  Knowledge  was  published  in  the  autumn  of 
1848.  It  consists  of  a  single  Memoir  on  the  Antiqui 
ties  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  by  Messrs.  Squier  and 
Davis.  Mr.  Henry  Stevens  is  employed  in  preparing 
a  catalogue  of  all  books  relating  to  America,  pub 
lished  prior  to  1700,  together  with  the  name  of  the 
libraries  in  which  they  may  be  found,  whether  in 
this  country  or  Europe. 

Measures  will  be  taken  to  obtain  meteorological 
observations  from  every  part  of  the  American  conti 
nent,  and  for  explorations  in  regard  to  terrestrial  mag 
netism.  Other  topics  connected  with  physical  geog 
raphy  will  receive  attention. 

This  institution  has  the  ability  to  do  much  to  pro 
mote  the  progress  of  knowledge  among  men.  It 
will  be  a  stimulus  to  scientific  men  to  push  forward 
their  inquiries  in  the  various  departments  of  knowl 
edge.  The  founder  of  it  has  certainly  shown  him 
self  to  be  a  man  of  large  views,  and  has  done  much 
to  advance  the  cause  of  science  in  this  country  and 
through  the  world. 

23* 


270  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER    VII. 

INVENTIONS,  ARTS,   AND   MANUFACTURES. 


SECTION  1.     Inventions. 

THE  number  of  patents  issued  from  the  patent 
office  at  Washington  will  give  some  idea  of  the  in 
ventive  genius  of  the  people  of  the  United  States, 
and  will  afford  reasonable  ground  to  conclude  that 
great  progress  has  been  made  in  arts  and  manufac 
tures. 

The  number  of  patents  issued  from  the  office  at 
Washington  from  1801  to  1814,  inclusive,  was  1,934. 
The  number  issued  during  the  next  fourteen  years, 
or  from  1815  to  1828,  inclusive,  was  3,289.  The 
number  issued  in  eight  years,  from  1841  to  1848,  in 
clusive,  was  4.435.  The  whole  number  of  patents 
issued  from  1801  to  1848,  inclusive,  was  15,844. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  greatest  number  of 
patents  issued  from  the  office,  of  any  particular  class, 
is  those  relating  to  agriculture,  and  the  smallest  num 
ber  is  those  that  relate  to  war.  The  proportion  of 
the  former  to  the  latter  is  nine  to  one.  Nearly  one 
half  of  all  the  patents  in  this  country  belong  to  the 
five  following  departments:  agriculture,  metallur 
gy,  manufactures  of  fibrous  substances,  chemical 
processes,  and  calorific  apparatus. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  271 

The  inventions  in  the  United  States,  since  the 
patent  office  was  opened,  in  1789,  have  been  1  to 
1,360  of  the  population  as  it  was  in  1840.  The 
patents  of  Massachusetts  have  been  1  to  394  inhab 
itants  ;  in  Connecticut,  1  to  285 ;  in  Georgia,  1  to 
10,706 ;  in  South  Carolina,  1  to  4,733. 

"  Within  a  few  years,"  says  the  commissioner  of 
patents,  "  the  inventive  genius  of  the  country,  under 
some  stimulant  or  other,  not  readily  perceived,  has 
been  more  than  usually  active,  and  has  produced  cor 
responding  results.  Formerly,  invention  was  pur 
sued  mainly  with  a  desire  to  develop  the  laws  of 
nature,  and  to  adapt  them,  by  mechanism  and  pro 
cesses  of  art,  to  the  use  of  man.  Now,  it  is  not  only 
pursued  from  a  love  of  science,  and  from  motives  of 
a  noble  ambition,  but  by  some  as  a  profession."  "  It 
aims  to  improve  what  already  exists  in  a  form  more 
or  less  imperfect,  and  to  adapt  it  to  the  practical 
wants  of  society." 

The  finish  of  articles  that  come  from  the  shops  of 
our  mechanics,  and  their  neat  and  elegant  appearance, 
show  that  great  advances  have  been  made  in  practical 
skill. 

Annual  fairs  of  counties  and  states,  industrial  exhi 
bitions,  and  the  awarding  of  premiums  for  mechan 
ical  skill  and  useful  and  ingenious  inventions,  have 
no  doubt  given  an  impulse  to  genius,  and  have  has 
tened  the  march  of  improvement. 

In  order  to  compete  with  foreign  manufacturers, 
who  pay  a  very  small  price  for  labor,  Americans  have 


272  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

been  driven  by  necessity,  which  is  the  "  mother  of 
invention,"  to  contrive  and  perfect  all  kinds  of  labor- 
saving  machinery. 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
and  within  the  recollections  of  many  now  upon  the 
stage,  some  of  the  most  important  revolutions  in  so 
ciety  have  been  occasioned  by  the  introduction  of 
labor-saving  machinery.  The  spinning-wheel  and 
the  hand-loom,  once  found  in  almost  every  family 
in  New  England,  have  been  driven  out  by  the  spin 
ning-jenny  and  power-loom.  Cotton  and  woollen 
factories  have  wrought  great  changes  in  the  occupa 
tion  of  families. 

The  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  by  Eli  Whitney, 
who  died  at  New  Haven,  January  8,  1825,  aged 
fifty-nine,  has  wrought  as  great  changes  in  the  cus 
toms  of  society,  and  has  promoted  the  general  wel 
fare  of  the  country  as  much,  perhaps,  as  the  inven 
tions  of  Fulton  or  of  Morse.  The  cotton-gin  was 
patented  in  1793,  but  the  benefits  of  it  were  not 
then  known ;  they  have  been  accumulating  during 
the  last  fifty  years.  Cotton  was  not  one  of  the  great 
staples  of  America  till  Whitney  taught  the  cotton- 
growers  how  to  clean  their  cotton,  and  prepare  it 
for  market.  Before  Whitney's  invention  came  into 
use,  not  more  than  one  thousand  bags  of  cotton  were 
annually  shipped  to  England.  Now,  this  article  con 
stitutes  half  the  value  of  our  exports. 

"  The  causes  of  the  vast  and  increasing  strides  in 
the  improvement  and  physical  condition  of  society 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  273 

are  to  be  sought  for  in  the  advanced  state  of  the  nat 
ural  sciences,  and  in.  the  increased  diffusion  of  knowl 
edge,  order,  and  morality,  among  the  people." 

I  have  said  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  patents 
belong  to  the  calorific  class,  such  as  stoves,  grates, 
furnaces,  &c.  A  little  more  than  thirty  years  ago, 
churches  had  no  stoves,  and  no  means  by  which  they 
could  be  warmed.  The  people  who  attended  meet 
ing  in  cold  weather  had  their  thoughts  more  engrossed 
with  the  inquiry,  What  must  I  do  to  keep  warm  ? 
than  with  the  question,  What  must  I  do  to  be 
saved  ? 

When  it  was  -•prop°sed.  to  set  up  a  stove  in  a 
church,  it  seemeS-to  some  a  very  wicked  thing  ;  it 
showed  that  people  were  becoming  effeminate,  and 
thought  more  of  their  comfort  than  of  their  duty. 
Some  declared  that  stoves  in  churches  would  injure 
the  health  of  the  people,  and  must  not  be  introduced. 
One  good  lady  said  she  could  not  endure  it.  A  stove 
was  set  up  in  the  church  on  Saturday.  She  remained 
a  while,  but  was  so  much  oppressed,  that  she  felt  it 
necessary  to  leave  the  house.  She  recovered,  how 
ever,  as  soon  as  she  learned  there  was  not,  and  had 
not  been,  a  spark  of  fire  in  the  stove  during  the  day. 

The  innovation  having  been  made,  the  people 
now  think  it  wicked  to  erect  churches  or  other  pub 
lic  buildings  without  providing  means  of  warming 
them. 


274  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


SECTION  2.      Daguerreotype. 

THE  most  beautiful  discovery  made  in  the  arts, 
during  the  last  half  century,  is  that  of  fixing  perma 
nently  on  a  metallic  plate  the  image  formed  in  the 
focus  of  the  camera  obscura.  This  instrument  was 
discovered  more  than  two  centuries  ago  by  Porta,  a 
Neapolitan  philosopher.  The  idea  existed  in  his 
mind  of  the  desirableness  of  being  able  to  give  per 
manence  to  the  beautiful  and  truthful  pictures  formed 
by  that  instrument. 

The  alchemists  made  another  discovery  connected 
Vith  the  photographic  art.  They  found  that  paper 
moistened  with  a  colorless  solution  of  chloride  of 
silver,  or  lunar  caustic,  became  black  when  exposed 
to  the  light,  and  that,  if  the  image  formed  by  a  lens 
was  thrown  upon  such  paper,  it  left  an  outline  of  the 
image  ;  but,  by  exposure  to  the  light,  the  whole  soon 
became  dark.  They  also  discovered  that,  by  placing 
an  engraving  or  picture  on  paper  thus  prepared,  and 
exposing  it  to  the  bright  light  of  the  sun,  the  paper 
became  darkest  beneath  that  part  of  the  picture  that 
was  most  transparent,  and  unchanged  beneath  the 
parts  that  were  opaque.  A  picture  was  thus  formed 
upon  the  paper,  but  the  light  and  shade  were  re 
versed. 

Here  the  subject  rested  until  1802,  when  Wedg 
wood,  the  discoverer  of  the  pyrometer  for  measuring 
high  temperatures,  presented  to  the  Royal  Society 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  275 

of  England  a  paper  upon  a  method  of  copying  paint 
ings  upon  glass,  for  church  windows,  by  the  aid  of 
the  camera  obscura  and  chloride  of  silver.  But  he 
did  not  succeed  in  making  the  pictures  sufficiently 
distinct  nor  permanent. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy  made  some  experiments  on 
the  same  subject  with  the  solar  microscope,  and  suc 
ceeded  when  the  object  to  be  represented  was  very 
small,  and  the  focal  distance  of  the  lens  very  short. 

The  next  experimenter  on  this  subject,  of  whom 
I  have  any  information,  was  M.  Niepce,  a  country 
gentleman,  who  resided  near  Chalons,  on  the  Saone, 
and  who  devoted  the  leisure  of  a  retired  life  to  the 
pursuits  of  science.  He  began  his  photographic  re 
searches  in  the  year  1816,  and  in  1827  he  acciden 
tally  learned,  through  an  optician  in  Paris,  that  M. 
Daguerre  had  been  experimenting  on  the  same  sub 
ject  for  more  than  a  year.  At  the  close  of  1827,  M. 
Niepce,  being  in  England,  presented  to  the  Royal 
Society  an  account  of  his  experiments,  and  several 
sketches  on  metallic  plates.  It  appears  that  he  had 
then  succeeded  in  making  the  shade  correspond  to 
shade,  and  light  to  light,  and  had  rendered  his  copies 
impervious  to  erasure,  and  to  the  blackening  effect 
of  the  solar  rays. 

In  December,  1829,  Niepce  and  Daguerre  bound 
themselves  by  a  deed  of  copartnership  for  mutually 
experimenting  on  the  subject  of  photography.  As 
improvements  were  made,  and  difficulties  surmount 
ed,  a  new  deed  was  drawn  up,  specifying  the  im- 


276  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

provement,  and  the  name  of  the  individual  who 
made  it.  Niepce  died  before  the  discovery  was  ma 
tured,  and  bequeathed  his  right  to  his  son,  between 
whom  and  Daguerre  the  copartnership  was  continued. 

One  of  the  difficulties  they  had  to  meet  was  the 
long  time  required  to  render  the  image  distinct.  It 
was  necessary  to  keep  the  focal  image  upon  the  metal 
from  sunrise  to  sunset ;  but,  as  the  shadows  of  ob 
jects  in  that  time  pass  through  a  semicircle,  the 
shadows  moved  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  picture, 
and  made  the  whole  equally  dark.  It  was  necessary 
to  overcome  this  difficulty,  before  this  method  of  ob 
taining  the  picture  of  any  object  could  be  of  any 
practical  utility. 

M.  Daguerre,  by  a  great  number  of  minute,  diffi 
cult,  and  expensive  experiments,  succeeded  in  obtain 
ing  a  distinct  impression  in  a  very  short  time,  and 
also  in  making  it  permanent. 

This  is  called  the  photographic  art,  because  the 
picture  of  the  object  is  painted  by  the  agency  of 
light ;  but  in  honor  of  the  gentleman  who  perfected 
the  art,  it  is  called  Daguerreotype,  and  the  pictures  so 
obtained  Daguerreotypes.  In  1838,  or  in  the  begin 
ning  of  1839,  M.  Daguerre  communicated  the  subject 
to  the  National  Assembly,  offering  to  sell  the  inven 
tion  to  the  government,  and  make  a  full  disclosure 
of  the  process  for  the  common  benefit  of  all. 

In  1839,  the  committee  to  whom  the  subject  was 
referred,  recommended  the  payment  of  a  pension  of 
8,000  francs,  to  be  divided  equally  between  Daguerre 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  277 

and  Niepce.  The  Assembly  made  it  10,000,  giving 
6,000  to  the  former  and  4,000  to  the  latter.  The  dis 
covery  is  one  of  great  value,  and  enables  any  one  to 
obtain  very  accurate  miniatures  of  his  friends  at  a 
very  small  expense. 

Blackwood's  Magazine,  in  its  announcement  of  this 
newly-discovered  art,  in  1839,  broke  out  in  the  fol 
lowing  strain  : — 

"Where  are  we  going?  Who  can  tell?  The 
phantasmagoria  of  inventions  passes  rapidly  before 
us  ;  —  are  we  to  see  them  no  more  ?  Are  they  to  be 
obliterated  ?  Is  the  hand  of  man  to  be  altogether 
stayed  in  his  work?  —  the  wit  active,  the  fingers 
idle  ?  Wonderful  wonder  of  wonders  !  !  Vanish 
aquatints  and  mezzotints ;  as  chimneys  that  consume 
their  own  smoke,  devour  yourselves.  Steel  engrav 
ers,  copper  engravers,  and  etchers,  drink  up  your 
aquafortis  and  die.  There  is  an  end  of  your  black 
art." 


SECTION  3.      Manufactures,   Cotton,    Woollen,  Silk, 
India  Rubber. 

WHILE  the  United  States  were  subject  to  Great 
Britain,  she  did  what  she  could  to  prevent  the  manu 
facture  of  any  thing  here  that  she  made  to  sell.  The 
House  of  Commons  seemed  to  act  on  the  principle 
"that  the  erecting  of  manufactories  in  the  colonies 
tended  to  lessen  their  dependence  upon  the  mother 
country."  Even  Lord  Chatham,  who  advocated  our 
24 


278  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

cause  during  the  revolutionary  struggle,  said  the 
Americans  should  not  be  allowed  to  manufacture  so 
much  as  a  hobnail.  Englishmen  could  very  easily 
persuade  themselves  that  Americans  should  confine 
their  attention  to  those  pursuits  that  did  not  interfere 
with  any  branch  of  business  already  established  in 
England.  The  Board  of  Trade  complained  to  Par 
liament,  from  time  to  time,  that  certain  trades  were 
carried  on,  and  certain  manufactures  set  up  in  the 
American  colonies,  that  were  detrimental  -to  the  trade, 
navigation,  and  manufactures  of  Great  Britain.  They 
permitted  pigs  and  bars  of  iron  to  be  imported  to 
Great  Britain  free  of  duty,  and  prohibited  the  erection 
in  this  country  of  any  mill  or  engine  for  slitting  or 
rolling  iron,  or  any  forge  to  work  with  a  tilt-hammer, 
or  any  furnace  for  making  steel.  They  would  not 
allow  the  importation  of  hats  into  England  from  this 
country,  and,  if  they  could,  would  have  prevented 
the  use  of  spinning-wheels  and  hand-looms  for  the 
manufacture  of  cloth  for  domestic  use.  They  thought 
it  would  be  better  for  the  Americans  to  purchase  of 
them  all  the  cloth  they  needed. 

One  thing  which  the  Americans  aimed  to  secure 
by  the  revolution  was  the  privilege  of  making  what 
they  pleased  for  themselves.  In  the  treaties  of  com 
merce  made  between  this  country  and  Great  Britain, 
she  has  aimed  to  cripple  our  manufactures,  and  oblige 
us  to  buy  of  her  at  extravagant  prices. 

I  offer  these  remarks  introductory  to  a  sketch  of 
some  of  the  leading  manufactures  of  the  United 
States. 


THU   HALF  CENTURY.  279 

Cotton  Cloths. — In  1790,  Samuel  Slater,  an  Eng 
lishman,  came  to  Rhode  Island.  He  was  acquainted 
with  Arkvvright's  improvements  for  spinning  cotton, 
and  able  to  superintend  the  erection  of  machinery 
for  that  purpose.  Under  the  patronage  of  Messrs. 
Almy  &  Brown,  of  Providence,  he  put  in  operation 
the  first  cotton  manufactory  in  this  country.  The 
attempt  was  regarded  as  hazardous.  The  owners  kept 
their  success  secret.  But  it  was  soon  inferred,  from 
the  fact  that  they  enlarged  their  establishment,  that 
the  business  was  profitable.  Others  engaged  in  it, 
and  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  it 
is  believed  that  about  two  millions  of  capital  were 
vested  in  cotton  mills. 

Master  mechanics,  for  building  machinery,  at  first 
all  came  from  England.  Americans  were  employed 
in  the  shops,  who  soon  became  masters  of  the  busi 
ness  themselves. 

From  1807  to  1815,  the  embargoes,  non-intercourse 
acts,  and  war.  preventing  the  importation  of  British 
cottons  into  this  country,  gave  a  spur  to  our  manufac 
tures,  and  the  business  during  that  period  was  very 
profitable. 

In  1810,  there  were  in  Rhode  Island  and  the  adja 
cent  parts  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  120,000 
spindles  in  motion,  which  made  annually  five  and  a 
half  million  pounds  of  yarn.  It  was  woven  in  hand- 
looms  by  females  in  the  surrounding  country.  Mer 
chants  in  the  country  towns  of  New  England,  very 
generally,  took  yarn  from  the  factories,  and  had  it 
wove,  paying  in  goods. 


280  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

The  scarcity  of  skilful  weavers,  and  the  high  price 
paid  for  weaving,  was  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  exten 
sion  of  the  business.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  this 
branch  of  American  industry  must  have  been  very 
much  crippled,  had  it  not  been  for  the  introduction 
of  the  power-loom,  which  was  first  used  at  Waltham, 
Massachusetts,  in  1815.  Since  then,  the  cotton  man 
ufactures  have  increased  rapidly.  They  supply  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  all  the  coarser  goods  for  home 
consumption,  and  export  large  quantities. 

The  amount  of  capital  vested  in  this  business  in 
the  United  States,  in  1830,  was  twenty-five  millions 
of  dollars.  There  were  then  795  mills,  running 
1,246,500  spindles,  employing  33,506  looms,  and 
making  230,461,990  yards  of  cloth  annually.  In 
1850,  the  number  of  yards  is  estimated  at  720,000,000, 
of  which  80,000,000  are  exported.  In  1845,  there 
were  in  Massachusetts  alone  302  cotton  mills,  having 
a  capital  of  eighteen  millions  of  dollars,  consuming 
sixty  million  pounds  of  cotton,  and  making  annually 
two  hundred  million  yards  of  cloth.  The  number 
of  cotton  mills  increases  every  year. 

The  following  statement  respecting  the  number 
of  cotton  factories  in  the  Southern  States  was  pub 
lished  in  the  Mobile  Advertiser,  in  May,  1850 :  — 

"It  is  estimated  that  Georgia  has  in  operation  40 
cotton  mills,  using  80,000  spindles,  and  consuming 
45,000  bales  of  cotton  annually  ;  in  Tennessee,  30 
factories  and  36,000  spindles ;  South  Carolina,  16 
factories,  36,500  spindles,  and  700  looms,  consum- 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  281 

ing  15,000  bales  of  cotton  ;  Alabama,  12  factories. 
12,580  spindles,  and  300  looms,  consuming  5.500 
bales  of  cotton.  Thus,  in  four  states  we  have  98 
factories,  besides  those  in  process  of  building,  work 
ing  140,000  spindles,  consuming  probably  75,000 
bales  of  cotton  ;  and,  if  they  go  on  increasing  for  the 
next  five  years  as  they  have  for  the  past  five,  we  cal 
culate  on  some  200  cotton  mills  in  operation  in  the 
Southern  States,  consuming  annually  over  200,000 
bales  of  cotton,  and  giving  employment  to  some 
thirty  or  forty  thousand  operatives." 

In  connection  with  many  of  the  cotton  mills  are 
calico  manufactories.  In  1845,  there  were  in  Massa 
chusetts  fourteen,  employing  a  capital  of  one  and  a 
half  millions,  and  printing  annually  forty  million 
yards. 

Woollen  Goods.  —  The  first  manufactory  of  wool 
len  cloths,  by  means  of  the  jenny  and  broad  loom, 
that  was  established  in  the  United  States,  went  into 
operation  in  Pittsfield,  Massachusetts,  in  1807.  In 

1809,  there  was  one  established  at  "Northampton,  by 
the  Messrs.  Shepherd,  exclusively  for  the  manufac 
ture  of  superfine  broadcloths.     Their  mills  and  ma 
chinery  cost   $40,000 ;  the   price   of  the   finest  wool 
was  then  $1.50  per  pound,  and  their  cloths  sold  by 
the  bale,  in  New  York,  at  $10  per  yard.     As  early  as 

1810,  there  was  a  woollen  mill  in  Bristol  county,  and 
another  in  Essex. 

In  1815,  vast   quantities    of   woollen    goods  were 
sent  into  this  country  from  Europe,  and  sold  exceed- 
24* 


282  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

ingly  low,  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  up  the  Amer 
ican  manufactories.  The  manoeuvre  was  partially 
successful.  Soon,  however,  the  price  of  foreign 
cloths  advanced,  and  the  manufacturers  were  able  to 
resume  their  business.  Merino  sheep  were  imported 
into  this  country,  and  the  price  of  wool  considerably 
diminished.  This  kind  of  business,  however,  did 
not  become  profitable  till  after  the  passage  of  the 
tariff  law  of  1824,  by  which  the  duty  was  raised 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  per  cent. 

In  1827,  a  convention  of  those  interested  in  wool 
len  manufactures  was  holden  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsyl 
vania.  They  petitioned  Congress  to  raise  the  duty 
on  woollens  imported  into  this  country  to  forty  per 
cent.,  with  an  annual  increase  of  five  per  cent,  till  it 
should  be  fifty  per  cent. 

In  1831,  it  was  estimated  that  the  gross  annual 
product  of  all  the  woollen  mills  in  the  United  States 
was  $40,000,000. 

In  1845,  there  were  in  Massachusetts  alone  178 
mills  for  the  manufacture  of  broadcloths,  satinets,  flan 
nels,  &c.,  and  17  for  the  manufacture  of  carpeting. 

The  number  of  woollen  mills  in  the  United  States 
at  the  present  time  is  unknown,  but  it  is  not  probable 
that  half  of  them  are  found  in  Massachusetts. 

Silk. — The  culture  of  silk  was  commenced  in 
Virginia  as  early  as  1625;  in  Georgia,  about  1732; 
in  Pennsylvania,  in  1771 ;  and  in  Connecticut,  in 
1760.  A  society  in  London  for  the  promotion  of  the 
arts  offered  premiums  to  those  who  would  plant  a 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  283 

given  number  of  trees,  or  produce  a  certain  number 
of  cocoons.  Several  thousand  dollars  were  thus 
obtained  by  individuals  in  this  country  from  that 
society. 

More  attention  is  now  given  to  the  silk  manufac 
ture  in  Connecticut,  probably,  than  in  any  other 
state.  In  1810,  the  value  of  sewing  silk  and  raw 
silk  made  in  the  counties  of  New  London,  Windham, 
and  Tolland,  was  estimated  at  $28,000.  There  is 
more  silk  made  in  Mansfield,  Connecticut,  than  in 
any  other  town  in  the  United  States ;  three  fourths 
of  the  families  are  engaged  in  it,  more  or  less.  Some 
make  five,  others  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  or  fifty  pounds 
in  a  year.  It  was  said,  in  1828,  that  from  three  to  four 
tons  were  made  in  that  and  the  neighboring  towns. 
More  or  less  attention  has  been  given  to  it  in  all  the 
states  except  Maine. 

From  time  to  time,  efforts  have  been  made  to  en 
courage  the  making  of  silk,  but  with  little  success. 

In  1825,  the  subject  was  brought  before  Congress, 
and  the  committee  on  agriculture  were  requested  to 
prepare  a  manual  upon  the  culture  of  silk.  It  was 
said  that  the  value  of  silks  imported  into  the  country 
that  year  was  $10,000,000,  and  the  value  of  bread 
stuffs  exported  was  only  $5,000,000.  In  1828,  Con 
gress  ordered  the  voluminous  report  of  that  committee 
to  be  published.  An  increased  attention  was  given 
to  the  subject,  and  in  1833  and  1834  the  price  of 
mulberry-trees  was  enormous.  Cuttings  were  sold 
at  the  rate  of  five  cents  a  bud.  Many  became  sud- 


284  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

denly  rich  by  cutting  up  and  selling  their  mulberry 
trees,  and  as  many  became  suddenly  poor  in  conse 
quence  of  purchasing  them.  Since  then,  no  increased 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  subject. 

In  1845,  22,000  pounds  of  sewing  silk  were  made  in 
Massachusetts,  but  most  of  it  from  imported  cocoons. 

India  Rubber  Manufactures.  —  In  1828,  it  was 
announced  in  Silliman's  Journal  that  Dr.  Comstock, 
of  Hartford,  had  found  a  composition,  the  chief  in 
gredient  of  which  was  caoutchouc,  or  India  rubber, 
which  renders  cloth  and  other  substances  impervious 
to  water.  Shoes,  boots,  and  other  articles,  it  was 
said,  had  then  been  in  use  more  than  a  year,  and  still 
retained  their  imperviousness.  Of  this  cloth,  thus 
prepared,  he  had  made  life-preservers,  consisting  of 
a  bag,  which,  when  fastened  round  the  body,  under 
the  arms,  may  be  filled  with  air  in  a  minute,  and  re 
tained  by  a  stop-cock.  Its  buoyancy  is  sufficient  to 
keep  the  head  and  shoulders  above  water  for  any 
length  of  time.  They  have  been  in  use  from  that 
day  to  this. 

In  1848,  a  new  life-preserver  was  invented.  It 
consists  of  an  India  rubber  dress,  which  covers  the 
entire  person  except  the  face ;  parts  of  it  being  in 
flated,  the  wearer  is  able  to  float  in  an  erect  or  recum 
bent  posture.  It  has  paddles  attached  to  it,  with 
which  the  wearer  may  propel  himself  at  the  rate  of 
three  miles  an  hour.  It  keeps  the  body  entirely  dry 
and  comfortably  warm  in  cold  weather.  A  man  put 
on  one  in  the  spring  of  1849,  and  went  from  New 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  285 

York  to  Governor's  Island,  and  from  thence  to  Staten 
Island,  and  returned,  having  spent  most  of  the  day 
in  the  water ;  not  even  the  starch  in  his  linen  was 
affected  by  dampness. 

Since  this  discovery,  India  rubber  cloth  has  been 
extensively  manufactured  for  the  covering  of  car 
riages,  for  overcoats,  to  be  worn  in  the  rain,  for  pan 
taloons,  with  feet  to  them,  to  be  worn  by  those  who 
are  obliged  to  stand  in  the  water,  and  for  a  great 
variety  of  uses. 

Recently,  a  new  gum  (gutta  percha)  has  been  in 
troduced  to  public  notice,  which  resembles  caout 
chouc  in  many  respects,  and  is  used  for  similar 
purposes.  It  is  found  in  the  Malay  Islands,  arid  its 
peculiar  characteristics  were  first  made  known  by  Dr. 
Montgomerie,  of  England,  in  1845.  Several  hun 
dred  tons  have  been  annually  exported  from  Singapore 
for  a  few  years,  which  shows  that  it  is  extensively 
used  for  various  purposes. 

Linen.  —  There  is  a  manufactory  of  linen  thread 
in  Lansingburg,  New  York,  that  produces  100,000 
pounds  annually.  It  is  the  first  and  only  establish 
ment  of  the  kind  in  the  country. 


SECTION  4.     Miscellaneous  Manufactures. 

ALMOST  all  articles  used  in  the  United  States  are 
manufactured  here  in  greater  or  less  quantities.  Of 
many  kinds  of  goods  our  home  manufactures  are 


286  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

sufficient  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  people ;  yet  this 
does  not  entirely  exclude  English  articles  of  the  same 
kind  from  our  market.  There  are  always  some  who 
prefer  the  European  manufactures,  even  if  they  cost 
a  little  more.  The  distance  from  which  they  come 
lends  some  enchantment. 

In  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  46,000  persons  are 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  of 
which  they  make  annually  22,000,000  pairs,  or  enough 
to  furnish  each  inhabitant  of  the  Union  with  one 
pair.  They  are  sent  from  this  to  most  of  the  other 
states.  This  business  has  grown  up  within  25  years. 
In  1810,  the  number  of  pairs  manufactured  in  Mas 
sachusetts  was  2,000,000,  and  more  than  half  of 
those  were  made  in  one  town,  Lynn. 

In  1810,  the  value  of  whips  manufactured  in  Mas 
sachusetts  was  $8,000 ;  in  1845,  the  value  of  this 
manufacture  was  $112,000;  the  increase  has  been 
almost  entirely  in  one  town,  Westfield. 

The  value  of  carriages  manufactured  in  this  state, 
in  1810,  was  $43,000  ;  in  1845,  it  was  $1,343,000. 
Fifty  years  ago,  journeys  were  performed  on  horse 
back.  Females  often  rode  in  this  way  50  or  100 
miles  to  visit  their  friends.  It  is  very  seldom  that 
an  individual  now  rides  any  great  distance  on  horse 
back,  unless  it  be  recommended  by  a  physician,  for 
the  benefit  of  health.  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey 
manufacture  more  carriages  than  Massachusetts. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  in  Massachusetts  has 
increased,  in  40  years,  from  $260,000  to  $1,750,000; 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  287 

glass,  from  $36,000  to  $760,000  ;  clocks,  watches, 
and  gold  and  silver  ware,  from  $180,000  to  $450,000; 
combs,  from  $80,000  to  $200,000  ;  chairs  and  cabi 
net  work,  from  $410,000  to  $1,476,000.  Other 
manufactures  have  increased  in  about  the  same  pro 
portion. 

Steel  and  gold  pens  have  come  into  use  within  25 
years.  They  were  introduced  from  England,  but  are 
now  manufactured  in  this  country  in  sufficient  quan 
tities  to  supply  the  wants  of  all  the  inhabitants,  and 
at  a  very  moderate  price. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century,  we  were  depend 
ent  on  England  for  pins  j  now  the  quantity  manufac 
tured  in  Connecticut  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  market 
of  the  United  States,  and  at  a  less  price  than  they 
can  be  purchased  in  England. 

Philosophical,  astronomical,  and  chemical  appara 
tus  is  manufactured  very  extensively  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time.  An  academy  or  a  college 
may  be  supplied  with  almost  every  article  that  is 
needed  to  illustrate  any  of  the  principles  of  science, 
without  sending  to  Europe.  Thirty  years  ago,  very 
few  articles  of  this  kind  were  made  in  this  country. 
If  an  air  pump  or  an  electrical  machine  was  needed, 
we  were  obliged  to  wait  until  it  could  be  imported. 

There  has  been,  within  a  few  years,  a  very  great 
improvement  in  the  finish  and  beauty  of  American 
apparatus.  The  value  of  apparatus  manufactured  an 
nually  in  Massachusetts  alone  is  estimated  at  $54,000. 
It  is  manufactured  in  some  of  the  other  states. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

There  is  no  state  in  the  Union,  probably,  where 
the  amount  and  variety  of  manufactured  articles  are 
so  great  as  in  Connecticut.  In  New  London,  Wind- 
ham,  and  Tolland  counties,  with  a  population  of 
about  90,000,  are  99  cotton  mills,  28  iron  forges,  13 
paper  factories,  111  sets  woollen  machinery,  20  tin 
factories,  8  comb  factories,  43  saddle,  trunk,  and  har 
ness  makers ;  8  brass  founderies,  and  82  coach  and 
wagon  factories,  and  many  other  branches  of  mechan 
ical  labor,  too  numerous  to  mention  in  detail.  I  find 
the  following  list  of  manufactured  articles,  viz.  : 
$100,000  worth  of  cordage  ;  $132,000  worth  of 
leather ;  52,400  pairs  of  boots  ;  5,865,000  pairs  of 
shoes ;  34,700  pairs  of  hosiery ;  123  tons  of  iron 
chain ;  600  scythes ;  6,500  axes  ;  1,300  tons  of  hol 
low  ware  ;  81,700  hats;  496,000  gallons  of  linseed 
oil;  $10,800  worth  of  glass;  $10,000  worth  of  lum 
ber,  prepared  for  the  market;  1,500,000  shingles; 
and  $27,750  worth  of  snuff  and  cigars  ;  —  all  this  in 
a  population  less  than  that  of  the  city  of  Boston. 

In  Derby  are  two  or  three  villages  built  up  and 
sustained  by  various  manufactures,  consisting  of 
shirtings,  broadcloths,  satinets,  India  rubber  gloves 
and  mittens,  metallic  and  rubber  shoes,  and  pins. 
In  Waterbury,  an  adjoining  town,  are  iron  and  brass 
founderies,  and  rolling  mills,  cotton,  wool,  and  paper 
mills,  cloth  and  metallic  button  factories,  and  manu 
factures  of  pocket  cutlery,  hooks  and  eyes,  pins,  Ger 
man  silver,  copper,  brass,  and  silver  ware,  and  clock 
and  umbrella  furniture. 


THE   HALF  CENTLItY.  289 

In  Meriden,  the  following  articles  are  manufactured 
in  great  quantities  :  coffee-mills  ;  latches ;  vises  ; 
Britannia  tablespoons  and  teaspoons ;  German  silver 
ditto,  ditto ;  butter  knives  ;  table  forks  and  dessert 
forks  ;  whitened  spoons  ;  Britannia  tea-pots  and  coffee 
pots,  and  faucets  ;  gimlets  ;  iron  candlesticks  ;  copy 
ing  presses  ;  saw  stretchers ;  iron  bench  screws  ;  steel 
yards  ;  spring  balances  ;  cast-iron  pumps  ;  waffle  irons  ; 
hat  pins  ;  wardrobe  hooks  ;  brace,  hat,  and  coat  hooks  ; 
friction  rollers,  for  grindstones ;  and  window  springs. 
In  sight  of  this  are  an  extensive  ivory  comb  factory, 
an  iron  comb  factory,  and  furnaces,  &c. 

The  number  of  clocks  manufactured  in  Connecti 
cut  is  very  great.  In  1842,  it  was  said  to  exceed 
500,000  annually;  they  are  made  both  of  wood 
and  brass.  A  single  establishment  in  New  Haven 
employs  75  men,  and  turns  out  daily  200  brass 
clocks.  Much  of  the  work  is  done  by  machinery  : 
the  wheels  are  cut  into  shape  by  machinery;  the 
clock  frames  are  planed  out  by  cutting  irons,  work 
ing  on  the  principle  of  the  circular  saw,  and  which 
are  fitted  to  the  ogee  or  any  other  shape  desired, 
and  the  pieces  are  left  in  such  a  state  that  two 
men,  working  together,  by  another  ingenious  con 
trivance,  will  glue  and  nail  together  about  200  frames 
per  hour.  This  state  more  than  supplies  the  United 
States  with  timepieces.  In  1841,  a  few  were  ex 
ported  to  England  by  way  of  experiment.  They 
were  invoiced  at  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  each, 
the  manufacturer's  prices.  They  were  seized  at  the 
25 


290  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

custom-house  in  Liverpool,  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  undervalued.  The  owner,  however,  succeeded 
in  satisfying  the  officers  that  they  could  be  made  at  a 
profit  even  at  that  low  price,  and  they  were  released. 
They  were  sold  at  auction  at  an  average  of  $20  each. 
Since  then,  the  importation  of  clocks  into  England 
has  been  very  great ;  in  1842,  it  was  40,000.  They 
are  sent  to  Northern  Europe  arid  to  China. 

Pennsylvania  is  distinguished  for  the  manufacture 
of  iron.  There  are  in  the  state  57  anthracite  blast 
furnaces.  They  produced,  in  1849,  109,168  tons  of 
iron,  and  employ  4,228  men. 


SECTION  5.     American  Art  Union. 

THE  object  of  this  association  is  to  cultivate  among 
the  people  of  this  country  a  taste  for  the  productions 
of  the  pencil  and  chisel,  and  to  encourage  young 
artists  to  persevere  in  their  endeavors  to  perfect  their 
skill  by  bringing  them  into  notice,  and  opening  a 
market  for  their  works. 

The  Art  Union  was  formed  in  1838.  Any  one 
may  become  a  member  by  paying  five  dollars  annu 
ally.  Every  member  receives  annually  a  beautiful 
picture  engraved  by  an  American  artist.  The  sur 
plus  money  is  expended  in  the  purchase  of  pictures 
of  American  painters,  which  are  exhibited  for  a  year 
in  the  picture  gallery  at  New  York,  and  then  they 
are  drawn  for  by  the  subscribers  somewhat  in  the 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  291 

manner  of  a  lottery.  In  1847,  272  pictures  were 
distributed  by  lot  among  the  members.  Some  of 
them  were  worth  $100  or  more,  and  some,  probably, 
not  worth  five.  The  association,  by  purchasing  so 
many  works  of  American  painters  every  year,  offers 
an  inducement  to  those  who  have  a  taste  and  skill  for 
painting  to  proceed  in  the  career  of  improvement. 

The  number  of  subscribers  to  the  Art  Union  in 
1847  was  9,666,  and  the  amount  of  money  received 
from  them  was  $48,733.  It  will  probably  go  on  in 
creasing  from  year  to  year. 

The  design  of  the  Union  is  to  encourage  the  arts 
of  sculpture  and  engraving,  as  well  as  painting.  It 
has  already  "  exercised  a  large  influence  in  advancing 
the  condition  of  art,  in  raising  the  standard  of  public 
opinion,  and  its  appropriate  criticism,  and  in  holding 
out  to  American  artists  the  certainty  of  reward  for 
their  toil,  their  study,  and  their  care.  It  distributes 
among  them  annually  many  thousands  of  dollars,  and 
by  it  they  are  stimulated  to  exertion,  and  reap  their 
share  of  fortune  and  fame." 

The  moral  effect  of  good  pictures  thus  diffused 
through  the  country  is  not  small. 

Our   engravers  have,  during  the    last ,  fifty  years, 
made   rapid   advances   towards  perfection.      Of  this '" 
any  one  may  be  satisfied  who  compares  tjae  engrav 
ings  of  the  present  day  with  those  of  former  times. 

The  names  of  Greenough,  Powers,  Brown,  and 
Crawford,  as  sculptors,  are  the  "  foremost  men  of  all 
their  time." 


292  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Several  distinguished  American  painters  have  died 
during  the  last  fifty  years.  Benjamin  West,  a  native 
of  Philadelphia,  spent  most  of  his  professional  life  in 
England,  because  there  he  could  obtain  a  more  ample 
reward  for  his  labor  than  in  this  country.  He  died 
in  1820,  aged  81.  More  is  known  of  him  by  the  com 
munity  at  large  than  of  any  other  painter  this  coun 
try  has  produced  ;  and  yet,  among  those  of  his  own 
profession,  it  is  thought  he  owed  his  greatness  very 
much  to  the  circumstance  that  he  had  so  few  com 
petitors ;  his  eminence  "was  forced  upon  him." 

Washington  Allston,  who  died  at  Cambridge,  Mas 
sachusetts,  in  1842,  aged  63,  attained  a  very  enviable 
rank  as  a  painter.  He  was  a  native  of  South  Caro 
lina,  and  was  a  most  estimable  man.  His  pictures 
were  for  the  most  part  drawn  from  events  recorded  in 
the  Scriptures.  Trnmbull,  Inman,  and  Stewart,  who 
have  already  ceased  from  their  labors,  were  distin 
guished  artists. 

"  Of  our  painters  we  may  well  be  proud,  as  to  their 
present  attainment  in  art,  and  still  more  as  to  their 
promise  of  future  achievement."  Our  countrymen 
have  hitherto  been  so  much  occupied  in  the  useful 
and  necessary  arts,  that  they  could  not  be  expected 
to  make  great  proficiency  in  the  fine  arts.  Many 
moral  and  physical  causes  combine  to  render  it  prob 
able  that  we  shall,  at  some  future  day,  produce  as 
eminent  painters  as  any  other  nation  under  heaven. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  293 

SECTION  6.     Letheon,    or    Sulphuric    Ether,    Chlo 
roform,    Gun-Cotton,  fyc. 

IN  the  autumn  of  1846,  it  was  announced  in  the 
public  journals  that  a  dentist  in  Boston,  W.  T.  G. 
Morton,  had  discovered  a  method  of  extracting  teeth 
without  pain.  Dr.  Morton,  it  seems,,  was  satisfied 
that  he  could  increase  his  business  to  any  extent  he 
pleased,  if  he  could  only  discover  a  method  by  which 
he  could  extract  and  insert  teeth  without  any  pain  to 
the  patient.  Having  some  knowledge  of  the  fact 
that,  by  inhaling  the  vapor  of  ether,  a  state  of  insen 
sibility  could  be  produced,  he  applied  to  Dr.  Charles 
T.  Jackson  to  know  if  it  could  be  done  with  safety. 
It  occurred  to  him  that  it  might  produce  such  a  de 
gree  of  stupor  that  a  tooth  might  be  extracted  with 
out  a  consciousness  of  what  was  doing.  On  the  30th 
of  September,  1846,  he  inhaled  the  vapor  himself, 
and  found  that  he  remained  in  an  unconscious  state 
eight  minutes.  On  the  same  day,  he  administered  it 
with  success  to  a  man  who  called  to  have  a  tooth 
extracted.  ,The  man,  on  recovering  his  conscious 
ness,  did  not  know  that  any  instrument  had  been 
applied  to  his  tooth.  On  the  16th  and  17th  of  Octo 
ber,  at  the  suggestion,  of  Dr.  Morton,  ether  was 
administered  to  two  patients  at  the  hospital,  who 
were  to  have  surgical  operations  performed.  The 
experiment  was  successful. 

As  soon  as  the  fact  was  known,  it  was  generally 
25* 


294  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

applauded  by  the  newspapers  as  wonderful  discov 
ery,  and  the  question  came  up,  1  whom  belongs  the 
honor,  and  who  shall  reap  the  reward  ? 

Dr.  Jackson,  in  a  letter  to  M.  Beaumont,  published 
in  Galignani's  Messenger,  in  Paris,  January,  1847, 
says,  "  I  request  permission  to  communicate  to  the 
Academy,  through  you,  a  discovery  which  I  have 
made,  and  which  I  regard  as  important  to  suffering 
humanity."  It  appears  that  the  idea  of  using  ether 
to  render  a  person  insensible  to  pain,  was  original 
with  Dr.  Morton,  and  that  Dr.  Jackson  did  no  more 
than  give  Dr.  Morton  some  information  respecting 
the  nature  of  ether,  and  the  best  mode  of  inhaling 
it.  But  as  Dr.  Jackson  was  better  known  as  a  man 
of  science,  Dr.  Morton  consented  to  take  the  patent 
in  the  name  of  both,  and  Dr.  Jackson  sold  out  his 
share  to  Dr.  Morton  for  ten  per  cent,  of  the  income 
that  might  be  derived  from  the  sale  of  rights  to  use 
the  discovery. 

In  February,  1847,  another  letter  appeared  in  Ga 
lignani's  Messenger,  from  Dr.  H.  Wells,  of  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  which  he  claimed  to  be  the  discov 
erer  of  the  fact  that  the  respiring  of  gas  would  pro 
duce  insensibility  to  pain.  Dr.  Wells  had  been  about 
the  country  for  a  few  years  previous,  lecturing  upon 
gases,  and  had  often  administered  the  exhilarating,  or 
nitrous  oxide,  gas.  There  is  no  evidence  that  he 
ever  administered  ether.  He  might,  in  his  experi 
ments,  have  found  that  persons  under  the  influence 
of  the  nitrons  gas  were  insensible  to  pain,  but  he  had 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  295 

no  right  to  claim  *  >at  he  discovered  that  the  vapor 
of  ether  would  pVduce  that  effect.  The  French 
Academy,  however  conferred  rewards  of  merit  upon 
both  Jackson  and  Wells,  and,  in  1848,  the  American 
Congress  awarded  to  Morton  the  honor  of  the  dis 
covery. 

In  1847,  several  sharp  articles  appeared  in  the  Bos 
ton  papers,  some  favorable  to  Morton,  and  others  to 
Jackson.  Wells  committed  suicide  that  year,  and 
nothing  more  was  said  respecting  his  claims.  Some 
spicy  pamphlets  were  written.  The  result  has  been 
that,  under  the  shelter  of  the  smoke  of  controversy, 
every  one  that  chose  has  made  use  of  the  discovery 
without  paying  Morton  for  the  right,  and  that  he  has 
been  actually  impoverished  by  the  attention  he  gave 
to  the  subject. 

Soon  after  this,  it  was  ascertained  that  chloroform, 
a  substance  previously  known,  which  is  as  volatile  as 
ether,  would  produce  similar  effects.  The  use- of  this 
was  strongly  urged,  and  a  controversy  arose,  in  1848, 
on  the  question  which  of  these  vapors  may  be  inhaled 
with  most  safety.  There  are  two  facts  in  regard  to 
chloroform,  and  its  effects,  which  show  that  ether  is 
the  safest  gas.  In  the  first  place,  ether  contains  a 
greater  proportion  of  oxygen,  so  much  as  not  essen 
tially  to  prevent  the  arterialization  of  blood,  while 
the  patient  is  under  the  influence  of  it ;  but  chloro 
form  is  composed  of  gases  that  prevent  arterializa 
tion.  Hence  persons  having  weak  or  diseased  lungs 
may  be  greatly  injured  by  it ;  many  have  died  under 


296  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

its  influence.  The  other  fact  is,  that  chloroform,  as 
I  am  told  by  those  who  have  inhaled  it,  destroys 
volition  for  the  time  being,  while  the  vapor  of  ether 
does  not.  Chloroform  puts  the  one  who  inhales  it 
into  the  power  of  those  about  him,  while  ether  leaves 
him  a  free  agent,  having  the  power  of  choice. 

Gun-Cotton.  —  During  the  winter  of  1845-6,  M. 
Schonbein,  professor  of  chemistry  in  Berlin,  made  a 
series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  nature  of 
ozone.  His  conclusion  was,  that  it  is  a  distinct 
peroxide  of  hydrogen,  that  forms  with  olefiant  gas  a 
peculiar  compound,  without  oxidizing  the  hydrogen, 
or  the  carbon  of  the  last-named  gas.  This  suggested 
the  idea  that,  if  he  should  let  ozone,  or  that  mixture 
of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  which,  according  to  his 
theory,  would  produce  it,  act  upon  any  organic  mat 
ter,  the  result  would  be  the  same  as  when  it  acts 
upon  olefiant  gas.  Among  other  things,  he  tried 
cotton,  and  found  that  it  would  explode  like  powder. 
In  April,  1846,  he  went  to  Wurtemburg,  and  per 
formed  experiments  at  the  arsenal.  He  loaded  pis 
tols,  cannons,  and  mortars  with  it.  instead  of  powder. 
In  the  summer  of  that  year,  he  used  it  in  blasting 
rocks,  and  in  blowing  up  some  old  walls  at  Basle, 
and  became  satisfied  that  it  is  superior  to  gunpowder. 
The  French  chemists  produced  a  similar  compound 
in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  and  have  claimed 
for  their  country  the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  gun- 
cotton. 

Schonbein  is  said  to  have  sold  his  patent  right  in 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  297 

England  for  40,000  pounds  sterling.  It  is  manufac 
tured  on  a  large  scale  in  that  country.  No  govern 
ment  has  yet  supplied  its  army  and  navy  with  it, 
instead  of  powder.  It  was  thought,  at  first,  that  it 
would  be  used  in  preference  to  gunpowder,  on 
account  of  the  safety  of  making  it ;  but  one  of  the 
shops  in  England,  devoted  to  this  business,  was 
blown  up  in  1848. 

It  is  said  to  be  better  for  blasting  than  gunpowder, 
but  none  of  the  gun-cotton  used  in  musketry  has 
proved  equal  to  that  made  by  Schonbein.  This  cir 
cumstance  has  led  some  to  suppose  that  he  has  not 
revealed  to  the  public  the  whole  of  the  secret. 

Adhesive  Plaster,  made  by  dissolving  gun-cotton 
in  sulphuric  ether. — In  1847,  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson,  of 
Boston,  ascertained  that  gun-cotton  was  soluble  in 
sulphuric  ether.  I  believe  he  manufactured  and  sold 
it  for  varnish  of  a  superior  quality.  Mr.  J.  P.  May- 
nard,  of  Dedham,  a  medical  student,  wishing  for  a 
better  varnish  than  he  could  find,  was  recommended 
to  use  this  of  Dr.  Jackson's.  In  using  it,  his  fingers 
were  wet  with  it,  and  he  soon  found  they  stuck  to 
gether  so  closely,  that  it  was  with  great  difficulty  he 
could  separate  them.  This  suggested  the  idea  that 
it  might  be  used  for  an  adhesive  plaster.  He  distrib 
uted  a  quantity  of  it  among  surgeons,  to  be  used  by 
them  when  occasion  required.  It  was  found  to  be 
far  superior  to  any  thing  of  the  kind  ever  used.  In 
case  of  cuts,  that  gape  so  as  to  require  to  be  drawn 
together  with  a  needle,  take  two  pieces  of  strong 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

tape,  or  strips  of  linen,  and  dip  one  edge  of  each  in 
the  solution,  and  apply  one  to  each  lip  of  the  wound. 
The  ether  immediately  evaporates,  and  the  tape  ad 
heres  so  firmly  that,  with  a  needle  and  thread,  the 
dry  edges  may  be  sewed,  and  the  lips  of  the  wound 
drawn  together.  It  is  a  good  substitute  for  court- 
plaster  ;  if  a  small  cut,  scratch,  or  burn,  be  brushed 
over  with  it,  it  forms  a  thin,  transparent,  and  color 
less  coating,  impervious  to  air,  and  will  usually  remain 
till  the  sore  is  healed. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  299 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

PROGRESS   OF   CHRISTIAN  BENEVOLENCE. 

SECTION  1.      The  Monthly  Concert  of  Prayer. 

As  early  as  1712,  a  concert  of  prayer  was  proposed 
in  Great  Britain,  on  account  of  the  dangers  which 
threatened  the  Protestants  ;  it  was  commenced  and 
continued  about  one  year.  In  1732  and  1735,  simi 
lar  concerts  were  proposed  in  Scotland,  but  sustained 
only  for  a  brief  period.  In  1744,  a  few  clergymen 
in  Scotland  commenced  a  concert  of  prayer  "for  the 
effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  all  the  churches,  and 
on  the  whole  habitable  globe."  It  was  observed 
every  Saturday  evening,  and  in  a  more  special  and 
general  manner  on  the  first  Tuesday  evening  of  every 
third  month.  In  1746,  a  memorial  was  published, 
stating  what  had  been  done,  and  recommending  the 
observance  of  it  for  seven  years,  "  to  all  who  had  at 
heart  the  interests  of  vital  Christianity  and  the  power 
of  godliness."  That  memorial  was  extensively  cir 
culated.  President  Edwards,  then  at  Northampton, 
received  one,  and  was  moved  by  it  to  write  a  tract, 
entitled  An  humble  Attempt  to  promote  explicit 
Agreement,  and  a  visible  Union  of  God's  People  in 
extraordinary  Prayer.  This  tract  found  its  way  to 
England,  and  the  reading  of  it,  more  than  thirty 


300  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

years  after  its  publication  in  this  country,  by  some 
members  of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  led  them 
to  recommend  the  observance  of  the  second  Tuesday 
of  every  other  month  as  a  day  on  which  special 
prayer  should  be  offered  for  the  spread  of  the  gospel. 
In  1784,  Rev.  Andrew  Fuller  proposed  to  the  asso 
ciation  to  which  he  belonged  to  observe  the  first 
Monday  evening  of  every  month  as  a  season  of 
united  prayer  to  God  for  his  blessing  upon  the  mis 
sionary  enterprise.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
monthly  concert  of  prayer.  It  was  observed  also  by 
the  friends  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 

The  manner  of  its  introduction  into  the  churches 
in  America  was  briefly  thus :  During  the  darkest 
period  of  the  war  with  England,  that  commenced  in 
1812,  a  clergyman  in  Connecticut  proposed  to  a 
friend  in  Massachusetts  that  Christians  should  spread 
the  condition  of  our  common  country  before  God  in 
prayer.  This  suggestion  resulted  in  a  weekly  concert, 
which  was  extensively  observed  in  New  England 
during  that  season  of  calamity.  At  the  termination 
of  the  war,  those  who  had  enjoyed  these  seasons  of 
united  prayer,  being  unwilling  to  relinquish  it  entire 
ly,  after  a  few  months  agreed  to  meet  on  the  first 
Monday  of  every  month,  in  concert  with  their  breth 
ren  in  England,  to  pray  especially  for  the  success  of 
the  gospel  in  heathen  lands.  It  was  thought  best  to 
begin  in  a  small  way,  and  extend  it  gradually.  The 
first  meeting  was  holden  at  Litchfield,  Connecticut, 
in  1816.  at  which  the  Rev.  Mr.  Mills,  father  of  S.  J. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  301 

Mills,  presided.  He  opened  the  meeting  by  saying, 
"  There  is  not  a  tongue  in  heaven  or  on  earth  that 
can  move  against  the  object  of  this  meeting."  Soon 
after,  it  began  to  be  observed  in  many  churches  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States ;  and  now  wherever 
there  are  Christians  whose  benevolence  is  expansive, 
and  who  are  waiting  for  the  consolation  of  Israel 
and  the  ingathering  of  the  Gentiles,  this  concert  is 
observed. 

It  was  for  a  long  time  observed  by  the  churches  on 
Monday  evening,  but  is  now  more  generally  observed 
on  the  Sabbath  evening  preceding  the  first  Monday 
of  each  month,  because  on  that  evening  a  greater 
number  of  persons  will  attend. 

Before  1820,  the  churches  introduced  the  custom 
of  taking  a  collection  for  missionary  purposes  at  the 
monthly  concert.  They  felt  that  while  they  prayed 
"  thy  kingdom  come,"  it  was  necessary  to  use  the 
appointed  means. 


SECTION  2.     Foreign  Missions. 

NEAR  the  close  of  the  last  century,  Christians  in 
England  began  the  great  work  of  missions  to  the 
heathen. 

The  first  missionary  societies  that  were  formed  in 

this  country  contemplated  the  sending  of  the  gospel, 

not    only   to    the    new    settlements,     but    to    "  the 

heathen ; "   and  many  have  supposed  they  had   the 

26 


302  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

foreign  missionary  enterprise  distinctly  in  view.  I 
suppose  not :  by  the  "  heathen,"  they  meant  the 
Indians  within  our  own  borders.  In  1803,  the  gen 
eral  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  church  made  an 
appropriation  for  a  mission  among  the  heathen,  and 
sent  Rev.  Gideon  Blackburn  to  teach  and  preach  to 
the  Cherokee  Indians.  Other  societies,  whose  con 
stitution  contemplated  the  sending  of  the  gospel  to 
"the  heathen,"  sent  it  only  to  the  Indians.  I  sup 
pose,  therefore,  that  they  had  not  conceived  the  idea 
of  sending  men  into  foreign  lands. 

Those  who  were  the  agents  in  that  movement 
which  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  American 
Board,  were  undoubtedly  the  first  movers  in  the 
foreign  missionary  enterprise  in  this  country. 

The  American  Board. — In  1807,  three  students 
in  Williams  College  conversed  together  on  the  sub 
ject  of  foreign  missions,  and,  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  of  that  year,  spent  a  day  in  fasting  and 
prayer  to  God  for  direction.  Their  names  were  SAM 
UEL  J.  MILLS,  of  Torringford,  Connecticut,  GORDON 
HALL,  of  Tolland,  Massachusetts,  and  JAMES  RICH 
ARDS,  of  Plainfield,  Massachusetts. 

In  the  spring  of  1808,  they,  with  some  others, 
formed  themselves  into  a  society  of  inquiry  on  the 
subject  of  missions.  That  society  still  continues, 
and  similar  societies  have  since  been  formed  in  other 
colleges.  The  first  measure  they  adopted  was,  to 
republish  and  put  in  circulation  two  missionary  ser 
mons,  one  by  Dr.  Livingston,  and  the  other  by  Dr. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  303 

Griffin.  They  visited  clergymen,  and  spread  before 
them  their  wishes,  and  asked  what  they  should  do. 
They  went  to  other  colleges,  especially  to  Yale  and 
Middlebmy,  and  infused  into  them  the  leaven  of  a 
missionary  spirit. 

In  1809,  Hall  and  Mills  were  at  Andover,  where 
they  found  three  other  kindred  spirits,  Judson,  New 
ell,  and  Nott.  They  agreed  to  unite  their  efforts,  and 
effect,  if  possible,  the  establishment  of  a  mission  in 
foreign  lands. 

June  25,  1810,  a  meeting  was  holden  at  Andover, 
at  which  many  clergymen  were  present,  for  prayer 
and  consultation.  On  the  27th,  the  General  Associa 
tion  of  Massachusetts  met  at  Bradford,  whu'ch  these 
young  men  attended.  They  made  known  to  that 
body  their  feelings  and  purposes,  and  asked  what 
they  should  do. 

The  association  referred  the  subject  to  a  committee, 
who  reported,  on  the  29th,  the  following :  — 

"  That  there  be  instituted  by  this  association  a 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  for  the 
purpose  of  devising  ways  and  means,  and  of  adopting 
and  prosecuting  measures  for  promoting  the  spread 
of  the  gospel  in  heathen  lands." 

It  was  voted,  "that  the  board  consist  of  nine  mem 
bers,  to  be  chosen,  in  the  first  instance,  by  this  body, 
and  afterwards  five  by  the  Massachusetts  and  four  by 
the  Connecticut  Association." 

The  members  chosen  were  Rev.  Joseph  Lyman, 
D.  D. ;  Rev.  Samuel  Spring,  D.  D.  ;  Rev.  Samuel 


304  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Worcester ;  William  Bartlett,  Esq. ;  and  Deacon  S.  H. 
Walley,  of  Massachusetts;  —  Governor  John  Tread- 
well;  Rev.  Timothy  Dwight,  D.  D.  ;  Rev.  Calvin 
Chapin,  D.  D.  ;  and  General  Jedediah  Huntington, 
of  Connecticut. 

They  held  their  first  meeting  at  Farmington,  Con 
necticut,  September  5,  1810,  adopted  a  constitution, 
and  appointed  Rev.  Samuel  Worcester  secretary. 

Mr.  Judson  was  sent  to  England  to  confer  with  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  and  to  see  if  the  young 
men  who  were  waiting  to  be  sent  abroad  could  be 
supported  by  that  society  for  a  time,  wholly  or  in 
part.  The  society  declined  doing  it,  and  expressed  a 
hope  that  the  American  churches,  when  appealed  to, 
would  send  out,  not  only  four,  but  forty. 

September  18,  1811,  the  Board  met  at  Worcester, 
and  decided  to  send  their  first  mission  to  India,  to 
the  Burman  empire.  At  the  beginning  of  1812,  there 
was  an  opportunity  to  send  them  out ;  the  Board  had 
only  $1,200  at  its  disposal,  and  needed  $5,000.  At 
first,  only  one  of  the  prudential  committee  was  in 
favor  of  incurring  so  great  a  risk,  and  of  running  in 
debt  $4,000.  On  mature  deliberation,  they  concluded 
to  send  them.  Judson  and  Newell,  with  their  wives, 
sailed  from  Salem  February  19,  1812  ;  and  Hall,  Nott, 
and  Rice,  from  Philadelphia,  on  the  20th.  Before 
they  sailed,  the  treasurer  of  the  Board  had  received 
$6,000. 

In  the  summer  of  1812,  the  Board  was  incorporated 
by  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  with  power  to  elect 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 


305 


its  own  members,  to  fill  vacancies,  and  to  add  to  its 
numbers. 

The  following  table  embodies  much  information 
respecting  the  meetings  of  the  Board  and  the  progress 
of  the  work :  — 


Time  of 
Annual 
Meeting. 

Place  of  Meeting. 

Preachers  and  Texts. 

Annual 
Income. 

Sept.  1810 

Farmington. 

"     1811 

Worcester. 

$  999 

"     1812 

Hartford. 

13,611 

"     1813 

Boston. 

Pres.  Dwight.    John  x.  16. 

11,361 

"     1814 

New  Haven. 

Dr.  J.  Richards.    Eph.  iii.  8. 

12,265 

"     1815 

Salem. 

Dr.  C.  Clinpin.     Ps.  xcvi.  10. 

9,993 

"     1816 

Hartford. 

Pres.  Davis.     Ps.  cxix.  96. 

12.501 

"     1817 

N.  Hampton. 

Pres.  Appleton.    1  Cor.  i.  21. 

29^48 

"     1818 

New  Haven. 

34,727 

"     1819 

Boston. 

Dr.  J.  Lyman.    Isa.  Iviii.  12. 

37,520 

"     18-20 

Hartford. 

Pres.  Nott.     Mark  xvi.  15. 

39,949 

"     1821 

Springfield. 

Dr.  J.  Morse.    Ps.  ii.  8. 

46,354 

"     1822 

New  Haven. 

Dr.  Miller. 

60,087 

"     1823 

Boston. 

Pres.  Day.     Neh.  vi.  3. 

55,758 

"     1824 

Hartford. 

Dr.  S.  Austin.    Gal.  i.  15,  16. 

47,483 

"     1825 

Northampton. 

Pres.  Bates.    John  viii.  32. 

55,716 

"     1826 

Middletown. 

Pres.  Griffin.     Matt,  xxviii.  18-20. 

61,616 

Oct.    1827 

New  York. 

Pres.  Bates.    Eph.  i.  3. 

88,341 

"     1828 

Philadelphia. 

Dr.  J.  Rice.    2  Cor.  x.  4. 

102,009 

"     1829 

Albany. 

Prof.  Alexander.    Acts  ii.  18. 

106,928 

"     1830 

Boston. 

Dr.  Do  Witt.     Matt.  ix.  37,  38. 

83,019 

"     1831 

New  Haven. 

Dr.  L.  Woods.    Isa.  Ixii.  1,  2. 

100,934 

"     1832 

New  York. 

Drs.  McAiiley,  Skinner,  and  Beinan. 

130,574 

Sept.  1833 

Philadelphia. 

Dr.  W.  McMurray.    2  Cor.  x.  4. 

145,844 

Oct.    1834 

I'tica. 

Dr.  G.  Spring.     Matt.  x.  6. 

152,386 

"     1835 

Baltimore. 

Dr.  Miller.    Numb.  xiv.  21. 

163,340 

Sept.  1836 

Hartford. 

Dr.  J.  Codman.     Matt.  x.  8. 

210,407 

"     1837 

Newark. 

Dr.  J.  McDowall.     Acts  iv.  12. 

254,589 

"     1838 

Portland. 

Dr.  Humphrey. 

230,642 

"     1839 

Troy. 

Dr.  McAuley.    Isa.  xi.  9. 

227,491 

"     1840 

Providence. 

Dr.  Beman.    Ps.  Ixxii.  17. 

241,691 

"     1841 

Philadelphia. 

Dr.  J.  Edwards.     Zech.  iv.  G. 

235,189 

"     1842 

Norwich. 

Dr.  W.  R.  De  Witt.    2  Cor.  v.  15. 

318,396 

"     1843 

Rochester. 

Dr.  Skinner.     Phil.  iii.  13. 

244  224 

"     1844 

Worcester. 

Rev.  A.  Barnes. 

236,394 

"     1845 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Pres.  Hopkins.    Ps.  Iv.  22. 

255,112 

"     1846 

New  Haven. 

Dr.  Hawes. 

262,073 

"     1847 

Buffalo. 

Dr.  Magie. 

209,365 

"     1848 

Boston. 

Dr.  J.  Ferris.     Matt.  vi.  10. 

254,056 

"     1849 

Pittsfield. 

S.  H.  Cox,  D.  D.    Dan.  vii.  27. 

291,705 

"     1850 

Oswego. 

R.  S.  Storrs,  D.  D.     1  Cor.  xv.  58. 

251,862 

The   following  are   some  of  the   more    important 
events  that  have  transpired.     For  a  history  of  the  mis 
sions  of  the  American  Board,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
26* 


306  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

one  prepared  by  Rev.  J.  Tracy,  and  to  the  Missionary 
Herald. 

About  1816,  Rev.  Edwin  Dwight  found  a  Sand 
wich  Island  boy  in  New  Haven,  sitting  alone  upon 
the  steps,  and  crying.  His  name  was  Henry  Oboo- 
kiah.  Much  sympathy  was  manifested  for  him,  and 
there  being  some  other  foreign  youths  in  the  country, 
it  was  thought  advisable  to  establish  a  school,  in 
which  they  and  others  might  be  educated,  and,  if 
suitable  persons,  sent  back  to  their  native  land  as 
missionaries.  The  General  Association  of  Connecti 
cut  moved  in  the  matter,  and  appointed  a  board  of 
agency,  and  at  the  same  time  it  was  under  the  con 
trol  of  the  American  Board. 

The  school  was  located  at  Cornwall,  Connecticut, 
and  went  into  operation  in  May,  1817,  under  the 
care,  temporarily,  of  Mr.  Dwight,  until  the  principal, 
Rev.  Heman  Dagget,  was  able  to  begin  his  labors. 
It  was  called  the  Foreign  Mission  School,  opened 
with  twelve  scholars,  and  sometimes  had  more  than 
thirty.  It  was  discontinued  in  November,  1825,  part 
ly  on  account  of  the  friction  occasioned  by  its  being 
controlled  somewhat  by  two  bodies,  and  partly  be 
cause  the  same  end  could  be  reached  in  other  ways 
at  less  expense. 

In  1825,  the  United  Foreign  Missionary  Society, 
under  the  control  of  the  General  Assembly,  and  hav 
ing  its  centre  of  operations  at  New  York,  became  a 
constituent  part  of  the  American  Board.  During  this 
year,  an  Indian  of  the  Cherokee  tribe,  named  George 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  307 

Guess,  invented  an  alphabet  of  eighty-five  characters, 
which  represent  all  the  sounds  in  that  language.  As 
soon  as  an  Indian  has  learned  these  eighty-five  sounds, 
and  their  characters,  he  is  able  to  read.  The  dis 
covery  was,  and  is  still,  regarded  as  wonderful,  from 
the  fact  that  Guess,  when  he  made  the  discovery, 
was  only  partially  educated. 

In  1826,  the  U.  S.  armed  schooner  Dolphin, 
commanded  by  Lieutenant  Percival,  arrived  at  Hon 
olulu,  Sandwich  Islands ;  and  finding  that  the  king 
and  his  council  had  enacted  a  law  prohibiting  females 
from  going  on  board  ships,  the  commander  and  crew 
were  enraged,  and  made  a  riotous  assault  upon  some 
of  the  king's  buildings,  and  upon  some  of  the  mis 
sionaries.  Similar  scenes  were  witnessed  at  Lahaina. 

In  1827,  the  same  law  called  forth  the  rage  of  the 
officers  and  crew  of  an  English  whale  ship.  They 
fired  upon  the  mission  at  Lahaina  ;  the  excitement 
was  tremendous.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  intelli 
gence  of  these  things  reached  America  and  England, 
their  conduct  was  condemned,  and  public  sentiment 
sustained  the  islanders. 

During  this  year,  two  Catholic  priests  and  six  sec 
ulars,  from  France,  took  up  their  residence  at  the 
islands. 

In  1831,  the  priests  and  seculars  were  sent  from  the 
islands,  by  the  order  of  the  government,  to  California. 

In  1832,  the  missionary  operations  of  the  Reformed 
Dutch  Church  were  blended  with  those  of  the  Amer 
ican  Board. 


308  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  1836,  those  who  were  most  earnest  in  their  op 
position  to  slavery  began  to  complain  that  the  Board 
was  pro-slavery,  that  it  had  purchased  slaves,  and 
held  them  in  bondage. 

In  1839,  the  French  frigate  L'Artemise  arrived  at 
the  Sandwich  Islands  to  avenge  the  insult  upon 
France  for  sending  away  the  Catholic  priests.  The 
commander,  Captain  Laplace,  demanded  the  admission 
of  Catholic  priests,  the  toleration  of  the  Catholic  reli 
gion,  a  site  for  a  church,  that  brandy  and  wine  should 
be  admitted,  and  that  the  duty  on  them  should  not 
exceed  five  per  cent.,  and  a  deposit  of  $20,000  as  a 
pledge  that  these  demands  should  be  fully  granted. 
He  declared  it  to  be  his  purpose  to  commence  a  war 
upon  the  islands  in  twenty-four  hours,  if  they  refused 
to  comply  with  his  requisition.  The  islanders  were 
forced  to  submit,  and  so  Catholic  priests  and  brandy 
were  admitted.  France,  by  this  tyrannical  act,  got 
herself  a  bad  name,  but  the  Catholic  religion  has 
made  very  little  progress  in  the  Islands. 

In  1840,  several  remonstrances  were  sent  to  the 
Board,  calling  upon  them  not  to  send  agents  to  col 
lect  money  of  slaveholders.  The  Board  was  charged 
with  sending  out  missionaries  who  were  slavehold 
ers,  and  subsequently  were  called  upon  to  prohib 
it  the  admission  of  slaveholders  to  the  mission 
churches. 

The  meetings  of  the  Board  every  year  since,  till 
1849,  have  been  perplexed  with  the  slavery  question 
in  some  form.  The  subject  has  been  referred  to  a 


THE  HALF  CENT  UK  Y. 


309 


committee  at  each  anniversary,  the  reports  of  which 
may  be  found  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Board. 
In  1849,  no  memorials  on  this  subject  were  presented, 
and  no  discussion  had ;  it  is  believed  the  ferment 
which  the  leaven  of  slavery  has  produced  has  now 
ceased,  and  its  meetings  in  future  will  be  character 
ized,  it  is  hoped,  by  an  all-pervading  sense  of  the 
divine  presence. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  progress  of  the 
work  by  comparing  its  strength  at  different  periods  :  — 


*3    Q 

.2 

•B   «? 

.£  s 

e  5 

§ 

i 

«j 

11 

-52 

J 

1 

1 

| 

1 

1:| 

fl 

H 

1 

s 

S 

j 

1819 

7 

7 

23 

81 

81 

1829 
1839 

13 
26 

46 

77 

44 
136 

225 
375 

266 
481 

7 
24* 

30 
52 

770 
7,311 

Printing  in  9  lang. 

1849 

25 

103 

159 

407 

537 

11* 

87 

25,372 

Printing  in  30  lang. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
Board :  — 

Rev.  Samuel  Worcester,  D.  D.,  appointed  1810,  died  1821. 


Jeremiah  Evarts,  Esq., 
Rev.  Elias  Cornelius,  D.  D., 

"     B.  B.  Wisner,  D.  D., 

"     R.  Anderson,  D.  D., 

"     David  Greene, 

"    W.  Armstrong,  D.  D., 

"     S.  B.  Treat, 

"     S.  W.  Pomeroy,  D.  D., 


1821,     "     1831. 

1831,  ">   1832. 

1832,  "     1835. 
1832. 

1832,  resigned  1848. 
1835,  died  1846. 
1847. 
1848. 


Union   Missionary    Society.  —  This   society  was 


*  Establishments ;  the  number  of  presses  not  known. 


310  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

organized  at  Hartford.  August,  1841.  Its  immediate 
object  was  to  support  a  mission  among  the  Mendians, 
in  Africa,  the  tribe  to  which  the  Amistad  captives 
belonged ;  another  object  was  to  open  a  medium 
through  which  those  who  had  become  disaffected 
with  the  American  Board  could  send  the  gospel  to 
heathen  nations.  This  society  was  remodelled  by  a 
convention  holden  at  Syracuse,  New  York,  Septem 
ber,  1846,  and  is  now  called 

The  American  Missionary  Association. — It  has 
missions  at  Mendi,  Africa,  on  the  Island  of  Jamaica, 
among  the  fugitives  in  Canada,  among  the  Ojibwas, 
and  they  support  one  missionary  at  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  Rev.  J.  S.  Green,  and  wife.  They  have 
established  a  mission  in  Siam,  having  purchased  the 
property  of  the  American  Board  in  that  place.  Re 
ceipts  in  1849,  $22,000.  The  society  has  eleven 
ordained  missionaries,  and  in  the  field,  or  about  to  enter 
it,  forty-three  Americans  and  four  native  assistants. 

This  society  supported  wholly,  or  in  part,  seven 
teen  home  missionaries  the  last  year.  The  society's 
place  of  business  is  at  New  York ;  Rev.  George 
Whipple,  corresponding  secretary. 

Baptist  Missions.  —  The  Rev.  Messrs.  Judson  and 
Rice,  two  of  the  first  missionaries  of  the  American 
Board,  became  Baptists  on  their  way  to  India.  Mr. 
Judson  was  sustained  by  the  English  Baptist  mission, 
while  Mr.  Rice  returned  to  America,  to  attempt  the 
organization  of  a  board  of  missions  among  the  Bap 
tists.  The  intelligence  of  the  change  of  sentiments 


THE   HALF  CENTURY. 


311 


in  Judson  and  Rice  reached  this  country  in  February, 
1813;  its  effect  was  electrical ;  a  missionary  society 
was  organized  in  Boston  soon  after.  Mr.  Rice  came 
and  visited  the  Baptist  churches,  and  other  associa 
tions  were  organized.  In  May,  1814,  a  convention 
was  holden  at  Philadelphia,  where  was  organized 
the  General  Missionary  Convention  of  the  Baptist 
Denomination  in  the  United  States  of  America  for 
Foreign  Missions.  It  meets  triennially,  and  the 
board  of  managers  annually.  The  missionary  rooms 
are  in  Boston. 

The  following  table  embodies  many  facts  :  — 


Year. 

Place  of  Meeting. 

Preachers  and  Texts. 

Income. 

1814 

Philadelphia. 

Dr.  R.  Firman.     Matt,  xxviii.  20. 

$5,850 

1817 

«« 

Dr.  T.  Baldwin. 

1820 

« 

O.  B.  Brown. 

1823 

Washington. 

Dr.  W.  Stoughton.    Acts  xxviii.  15. 

7,697 

1826 

New  York. 

J.  Mercer.    Matt,  xxviii.  19. 

1827 

Boston. 

\V.  Yates. 

3,944 

1828 

New  York. 

W.  T.  Brantlcy.    Phil.  ii.  16. 

1829 

Philadelphia. 

Dr.  Sharp. 

1830 

Hartford. 

C.  G.  Somers. 

1831 

Providence. 

B.  Babcock,  Jr.     Ps.  Ixvii.  1,  2. 

1832 

New  York. 

President  Wayland.    Rom.  vii.  13. 

1833 

Salem. 

Dr.  B.  Stow.    1  John  ii.  6. 

42,496 

1834 

New  York. 

W.  R.  Williams.    2  Cor.  x.  15,  16. 

1835 

Richmond. 

S.  H.  Cone.    Acts  ix.  6. 

1836 

Hartford. 

E.  Galusha.    Luke  x.  2. 

1837 

Philadelphia. 

C.  G.  Somers.    Ps.  Ixxii.  19. 

50,000 

1838 

New  York. 

Dr.  B.  Stow.    Acts  xii.  24. 

36,315 

1839 

Philadelphia. 

J.  B.  Taylor.     Luke  xxiv.  46,  47. 

53,000 

1840 

New  York. 

Dr.  B.  T.  Welch.    John  iii.  8. 

57,781 

1841 

Baltimore. 

Dr.  R.  FuUcr.    John  xii.  32. 

56,948 

1842 

New  York. 

Dr.  R.  E.  Pattison.    Ps.  Ixxxvii.  7. 

52,137 

1843 

Albany. 

Dr.  P.  Church.    Col.  i.  29. 

47,151 

1844 

Philadelphia. 

Dr.  S.  W.  Lvnd.    1  Cor.  i.  21. 

62,062 

1845 

Providence. 

G.  B.  Ide.    Is.  xl.  9. 

71,876 

1846 

Brooklyn. 

Dr.  G.  W.  Eaton.     1  Tim.  i.  11. 

1847 

Cincinnati. 

Dr.  B.  Stow.    Matt,  xxvii.  45,  51-3. 

85,009 

1848 

Troy. 

J.  N.  Granger.    Gal.  ii.  9. 

85,894 

1849 

Philadelphia. 

M.  J.  Rhees.    Phil.  ii.  5. 

88,902 

312 


THE   HALF  CENTURY. 


The  Baptist  Board  have  received  from  the  United 
States  government  considerable  sums  for  the  support 
of  schools  among  the  Indians.  The  receipts  in  the 
above  table  are  designed  to  include  only,  the  church 
contributions  and  voluntary  donations. 

The  debt  of  this  society  in  1849  was  $24,000. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  state  of  the 
society's  missions  at  different  periods  :  — 


•i 

„• 

tf 

42 

« 

•2  £ 

"a  K| 

2 

s 

1 

11 

1| 

| 

g 
| 

£ 

^ 

^ 

s 

1824 

9 

28 

4 

1834 

28 

72 

105 

16 

1,500 

1849 

49 

109 

303 

148 

11,534 

They  occupy  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  stations. 
Missionary  Society  of  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  —  This  society  was  organized  in  1819,  at 
New  York,  and  approved  by  the  General  Conference 
in  1820.  It  has  a  foreign  and  a  domestic  department. 
The  foreign  missions  of  the  society  are  four  —  Libe 
ria,  South  America,  Oregon,  and  China.  In  1849, 
there  were  55  persons  laboring  at  these  stations  as 
preachers,  teachers,  and  mechanics,  and  the  number 
of  communicants  1,379.  In  the  domestic  field  the 
society  has  414  persons,  employed  among  the  Ger 
mans,  Indians,  and  Swedes,  and  in  destitute  portions 
of  the  United  States  and  territories.  The  amount 
of  the  society's  receipts  for  the  year  ending  May, 
1849,  was  $84,405. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  313 

At  the  organization  of  the  society,  it  included  the 
Methodists  in  all  the  states  in  the  Union.  In  conse 
quence  of  the  abolition  sentiments  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  church,  they  refused  to  cooperate 
with  the  southern ;  and  at  the  General  Confer 
ence,  holden  in  New  York,  in  1844,  a  separation  was 
agreed  upon.  Those  residing  in  the  slave  states  con 
stitute  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  This 
portion  of  the  church  has  a  missionary  society,  the 
receipts  of  which,  for  the  year  ending  April,  1848, 
was  $62,613. 

It  has   2  missionaries  in  China. 

"     "    33  "  among  the  Indians. 

11     "     7  "  «       the  Germans. 

"     "  130  «  "        the  slaves. 

"     "    64  «  in  Texas. 

Total,  236. 

The  amount  of  receipts  from  the  whole  church, 
north  and  south,  for  missionary  purposes,  was,  in 
1820,  $823;  in  1830,  $13,128;  and  in  1840, 
$116,941.  Total  receipts  in  twenty-one  years  for 
foreign  and  domestic  missions  were  $638,851. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Missions.  —  The  Domestic 
and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  was  organized  in  1820. 

In  1835,  the  organization  was  changed,  and  it  is 
now  called  the  Board  of  Missions,  &c.  A  board  of 
thirty  members  is  elected  by  the  triennial  convention, 
which  conducts  the  missionary  operations  in  the  in 
terim.  It  had,  in  1835,  three  missionary  stations  in 
27 


314  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

foreign  lands  —  Greece,  China,  and  Africa.  It  had  five 
missionaries,  five  female,  and  five  native  helpers. 
The  receipts  for  the  year  ending  May,  1835,  were 
$26,154. 

In  1843,  it  had,  in  addition  to  the  above,  a  station 
on  the  Island  of  Crete,  one  at  Constantinople,  and 
one  in  Texas.  The  number  of  ordained  missionaries 
was  then  twelve,  and  of  assistants  twenty-five.  The 
receipts  for  that  year  were  $35,197. 

Missions  of  the  Free-will  Baptists. — There  are 
in  the  United  States  55,000  communicants  in  this 
denomination.  Their  attention  was  called  to  the 
subject  of  missions  by  Rev.  Amos  Sutton,  an  Eng 
lish  missionary,  who  visited  this  country  in  1833, 
and  organized  a  society.  In  1834,  he  made  a  tour 
through  the  states,  preaching  on  missions.  He  sailed 
for  India  in  1835,  taking  with  him  two  missionaries 
and  their  wives  from  this  country.  In  1843,  the 
receipts  of  the  society  were  $3,502. 

General  Assembly's  Board  of  Missions.  —  In 
1802,  the  Western  Missionary  Society  was  formed  at 
Pittsburg.  In  1825,  it  was  transferred  to  the  United 
Foreign  Missionary  Society,  at  New  York,  which 
soon  after  was  transferred  to  the  American  Board,  so 
that  the  Presbyterian  church  had  then  no  distinct 
foreign  missionary  organization.  Believing  that,  as 
a  church,  they  ought  to  engage  in  this  work,  a  socie 
ty  was  organized  at  Pittsburg,  in  October,  1831, 
which  held  its  first  annual  meeting  in  May,  1833  ;  its 
receipts  were  $16,000.  In  1834,  it  had  sixteen  mis- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  315 

sionaries,  at  three  stations.  The  receipts  for  the  year 
ending  1835  were  $17,000. 

In  1837,  the  General  Assembly  appointed  a  board 
of  missions,  consisting  of  forty  ministers  and  forty 
laymen,  one  fourth  of  whom  go  out  of  office  annu 
ally.  The  Western  Society  committed  its  work  to 
this  board,  and  New  York  became  the  centre  of  its 
operations. 

The  summary  of  the  reports  of  1839  and  1849 
will  present  a  view  of  the  progress  of  the  board  :  — 

Receipts.  Clergy.      Assistants.       Total.         Missions. 

1839  $  56,149  21  32  53  6 

1849  110,534  51  77  128  16 

» 

The  amount  contributed  by  all  the  churches,  of  all 
denominations,  in  the  United  States,  for  the  year 
ending  in  the  summer  of  1849,  for  foreign  missions, 
may  be  stated  in  round  numbers  at  $650,000.  Of 
this  sum  $566,000  was  paid  by  churches  that  con 
tain  642,000  members,  and  $84,000  by  churches 
that  contain  1,137,000  members. 


SECTION  3.     Home  Missions. 

IN  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  the  attention 
of  Christians  began  to  be  directed  to  the  condition 
and  wants  of  the  new  settlements  of  our  country. 

The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
commenced  this  work  on  a  small  scale  in  1789.  The 


316  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Connecticut  Missionary  Society  was  formed  in  1798, 
though  some  churches  in  Connecticut  had  done  some 
thing  as  early  as  1792.  The  Berkshire  and  Colum 
bia  Missionary  Society,  comprising  the  churches  of 
Berkshire  county,  Massachusetts,  and  Columbia  coun 
ty,  New  York,  was  organized  in  1798,  and  the  Mas 
sachusetts  Missionary  Society  May  28,  1799. 

The  leading  object  of  these  societies  was  to  prop 
agate  the  gospel  in  the  new  settlements  ;  most  of 
the  missionaries  were  sent  to  Central  New  York,  and 
a  few  to  the  province  of  Maine.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  century,  such  men  as  Jedediah  Bushnel,  Seth 
Williston,  and  James  Hotchkiss,  young  and  zealous 
in  the  work  of  their  Master,  were  laboring  as  mis 
sionaries  in  what  was  then  the  far  west.  Bushnel 
went  to  his  grave  in  1846,  aged  77 ;  Hotchkiss  still 
lives,  at  the  age  of  threescore  and  ten,  having  com 
pleted  a  history  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place 
in  Western  New  York  during  the  last  fifty  years  ;  and 
Williston,  at  the  advanced  age  of  fourscore  years, 
is  speaking  through  the  press  about  the  millennial 
glories  seen  in  the  shadowy  distance,  and  is  urging 
the  disciples  of  Christ  to  prepare  for  its  coming. 

Some  of  the  societies  I  have  named,  and  many  of 
those  subsequently  organized,  were  authorized  by 
their  constitution  to  send  the  gospel  to  heathen  na 
tions.  Hence  it  is  said  they  had  conceived  the  idea 
of  what  is  now  called  foreign  missions.  It  is  prob 
able  that,  by  the  "  heathen,"  they  meant  the  Ameri 
can  Indians. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  317 

The  idea  of  home  mission,  in  its  strict  sense,  was 
not  clearly  comprehended  till  about  1816.  Christians 
were  not  aware  that  it  was  their  duty  to  aid  and  en 
courage  feeble  churches,  scattered  about  in  the  midst 
of  those  that  were  contributing  money  to  sustain 
ministers  in  the  new  settlements.  None  of  the  soci 
eties  I  have  named  were  authorized  to  expend  any 
part  of  their  funds  for  the  support  of  missionaries  at 
home. 

In  1816,  a  Domestic  Missionary  Society  was  formed 
in  Connecticut,  the  object  of  which  was  "  to  build 
up  the  waste  places  in  that  state."  In  1818,  a  Do 
mestic  Missionary  Society  was  formed  in  Massachu 
setts.  In  each  of  these  states  there  were  two  organ 
izations,  one  for  sending  the  gospel  to  the  new 
settlements  and  heathen  nations,  and  the  other  for 
assisting  feeble  churches  at  home.  In  Connecticut, 
the  two  associations  have  still  a  nominal  existence, 
though,  I  believe,  separate  collections  are  not  taken 
by  the  churches  for  their  support.  In  Massachusetts, 
they  were  united  July  11,  1827. 

In  1802,  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyte 
rian  Church  appointed  a  standing  committee  of  mis 
sions,  and  in  1816  a  board  of  missions  was  instituted, 
which  began  to  act  with  considerable  efficiency  in 
1830,  but  did  not  put  forth  all  its  energies  till  after 
the  division  of  the  Assembly  in  1837. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  missionary  societies 
organized  in  the  early  part  of  this  century  :  — 

The  New  Hampshire  Society,  1801. 
27* 


318  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  New  Jersey  Society,  1801. 

The  Western  Society,  at  Pittsburg,  1802 

The  Hampshire  County  Society,  1802. 

The  Piscataqua,  including  a  few  churches  in  New 
Hampshire  and  some  in  Maine,  1803. 

The  Vermont  Society,  1807. 

The  Rhode  Island,  which  is  strictly  a  home  mis 
sionary  society,  1820. 

The  United  Domestic  Missionary  Society  of  New 
York,  1822. 

As  might  be  expected,  many  of  these  societies 
sent  their  missionaries  to  the  same  region,  and  were 
in  danger  of  crowding  too  many  into  one  section  of 
country,  and  of  leaving  other  fields  uncultivated. 
As  early  as  1820,  some  attempts  were  made  to  unite 
the  societies  in  New  England  under  one  board  of 
directors.  These  efforts  were,  however,  ineffectual. 
In  May,  1826,  the  American  Home  Missionary  Soci 
ety  was  formed  in  the  city  of  New  York,  the  Do 
mestic  Missionary  Society  of  that  state  being  the 
nucleus  around  which  other  state  societies  were  gath 
ered.  The  state  societies  in  New  England  make 
the  collections,  and  use  so  much  of  the  money  as  is 
needed  in  their  own  state,  and  pay  over  the  balance 
to  the  American  Society. 

The  Rev.  Absalom  Peters,  D.  D.,  was  secretary 
of  the  American  Home  Mission  Society  from  May, 
1826,  to  October  23,  1837.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Rev.  Milton  Badger,  D.  D.,  and  Rev.  Charles  Hall, 
D.  D.,  associate  secretaries.  Dr.  Badger  was  asso- 


TilE   HALF   CENTURY.  319 

elated  with  Dr.  Peters  three  years  previous  to  his 
resignation,  and  Dr.  Hall  had  been  an  assistant  for 
eight  years. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year,  (1827,)  the  society 
reported  169  missionaries,  101  of  whom  had  been 
appointed  by  the  Domestic  Missionary  Society. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  condition  of  the 
society  at  different  periods  :  — 


1827 

Receipts. 
$   18,140 

JVwmJer 
of  Missions. 

169 

Number 
of  Churches. 

196 

1836 

101,565 

755 

1,000 

1839 

82,564 

665 

794 

1845 

121,946 

943 

1,285 

1850 

157,160 

1,032 

1,575 

The  diminution  of  the  receipts  of  the  society  from 
1836  to  1839  was  occasioned  by  the  pecuniary  em 
barrassments  of  the  country,  and  the  general  disaster 
that  befell,  in  1837,  almost  every  branch  of  worldly 
enterprise.  It  palsied  the  hands  of  the  benevolent, 
from  which  they  did  not  recover  for  eight  years.  In 
1844,  the  contributions  again  reached  the  point  they 
had  gained  in  1836. 

In  1847,  two  missionaries  were  sent  to  Oregon  by 
the  American  Home  Mission  Society  j  they  went  to 
their  field  of  labor  via  Cape  Horn  and  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  notice  that  the  easiest 
way  to  get  to  the  most  remote  settlement  in  our 
country,  at  that  time,  was  by  a  voyage  half  round 
the  world. 

In  November,  1848,  the  society  sent  two  missiona- 


320  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

ries  to  California.  On  their  arrival,  in  the  early  part 
of  1849,  after  the  opening  of  the  gold  mines,  they 
were  received  by  the  people,  and  settled,  with  a  sal 
ary  of  $2,500  each.  It  may  seem  to  future  genera 
tions  as  though  this  was  an  enormous  salary  to  be 
paid  by  a  people  dwelling  in  tents ;  but  let  them  be 
told  that  the  recent  discovery  of  gold  made  money 
plenty,  and  the  means  of  living  so  high,  that  $2,500 
in  California  was  equal  to  no  more  than  $400  in 
Iowa. 

The  General  Assembly,  I  have  said,  first  com 
menced  the  work  of  home  missions  in  an  organized 
form.  It  did,  however,  comparatively  nothing.  Dur 
ing  40  years,  or  from  1789  to  1829,  it  sent  out  only 
769  missionaries,  and  contributed  only  $77,941  to 
their  support,  or  less  than  $2,000  a  year. 

In  1829,  the  Assembly's  board  sustained  101  home 
missionaries,  and  raised  $15,000  for  that  object.  In 
1839,  it  sustained  260  missionaries,  who  preached  to 
260  congregations,  and  the  churches  contributed  to 
that  cause  $41,759.  This  was  given  by  those 
churches  connected  with  the  old  school  Assembly. 
The  churches  belonging  to  the  new  school  Assembly 
have  always  sustained  the  American  Home  Missionary 
Society,  and  many  of  the  churches  that  are  now  old 
school,  previous  to  1837.  Since  this  last  date,  the 
churches  in  the  old  school  connection  have  given  all 
their  support  to  their  own  missions. 

Many  of  the  early  missionaries  to  the  new  settle 
ments  were  pastors  of  churches,  who  were  sent  out 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  321 

for  three  months ;  their  churches  at  home  being 
supplied  during  their  absence  by  the  neighboring 
ministers. 

The  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society 
was  instituted  in  1832  ;  and  in  1843,  by  the  aid  of  its 
auxiliaries,  sustained  368  missionaries  and  agents : 
the  receipts,  in  that  year,  were  $40,583.  In  1848, 
the  receipts  of  the  parent  society,  not  including 
auxiliaries,  were  $26,136,  and  its  missionaries  156. 
The  parent  society  does  not  include  in  its  summation 
what  is  done  by  auxiliaries. 

The  Methodist  and  Protestant  Episcopal  churches 
have  missionary  societies,  but  their  home  and  foreign 
operations  are  managed  by  the  same  officers,  and  only 
one  collection  is  made  for  both  objects. 


SECTION  4.     American  Bible  Society. 

THE  first  society  formed  in  this  country  to  pro 
mote  the  diffusion  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  for 
supplying  destitute  families  gratuitously,  was  the 
Philadelphia  Bible  Society.  It  was  organized  in 
December,  1808,  and,  on  application  to  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  it  obtained  a  donation  of 
200  pounds  sterling.  This  was  given  to  enable  the 
society  to  print  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  the  German 
language.  The  New  York  Bible  Society,  at  a  later 
period,  received  from  the  same  source  200  pounds  to 
enable  it  to  print  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  the  French 


322  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

language,  and  the  Delaware  Bible  Society  received 
100  pounds.  Most  of  this  money  was  received  from 
England,  at  a  time  when  the  two  countries  were  on 
the  eve  of,  or  actually  engaged  in,  war  with  each 
other.  In  1809,  the  Massachusetts,  the  Connecticut, 
the  New  York,  and  the  Maine  Bible  Societies  were 
formed.  In  1810,  the  Georgia,  and  the  Merrimac,  at 
Nevvburyport,  were  formed  ;  in  1811,  the  New  Hamp 
shire,  New  Jersey,  Albany,  and  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
societies  were  formed;  in  1812,  the  Vermont,  Nassau 
Hall,  and  Washington  County,  New  York;  in  1813, 
the  Virginia;  in  1814,  the  Connecticut  Reserve, 
Ohio,  the  Middlesex  County,  Massachusetts,  Norfolk, 
Virginia,  and  Fan-field  County,  Connecticut,  were 
organized. 

In  the  summer  of  1814,  an  article  was  published  in 
the  Panoplist,  Boston,  recommending  the  formation 
of  a  National  Bible  Society.  This  was  followed  by 
others  in  1815.  The  plan,  it  is  said,  originated  in 
the  New  Jersey  Bible  Society.  If  so,  then  those  arti 
cles  in  the  Panoplist  were  written  by  some  member 
of  that  society.  The  NCAV  Jersey  society  asked 
counsel  of  the  managers  of  the  New  York  society, 
who  approved  of  the  plan,  and  recommended  that 
the  Hon.  Elias  Boudinot,  the  venerable  president  of 
the  New  Jersey  society,  should  fix  the  time  and 
place  of  a  meeting  of  delegates  from  the  various 
Bible  societies,  and  issue  a  circular  invoking  such 
a  meeting. 

In  that  circular  it  is  said,  "  From  the  most  correct 


THE   HALF  CENTURY  323 

information  that  has  lately  been  received,  it  has  be 
come  evident  that  the  demand  for  Bibles  in  the 
remote  and  frontier  settlements  of  our  country  is  far 
beyond  the  resources  of  the  several  Bible  societies 
now  existing  in  the  United  States." 

The  writer  says,  in  conclusion,  that  such  a  society, 
"  I  have  not  the  least  doubt,  will,  in  time,  in  point  of 
usefulness,  be  second  only  to  the  parent  institution, 
(the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,)  will  shed  an 
unfading  lustre  on  our  Christian  community,  and  will 
prove  a  blessing  to  our  country  and  the  world." 
Dated  January  31,  1816. 

The  convention  met  on  the  second  Wednesday 
of  May,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  when  it  appeared 
that  60  persons  were  present,  representing  35  Bible 
societies.  A  constitution  was  adopted,  and  officers 
chosen. 

The  following  is  the  list  of  its  presidents  and  sec 
retaries  :  — 

Hon.  Elias  Boudinot,  LL.  D.,  was  president  from 
1816  to  1821.  He  died  October  24,  1821,  aged  82. 
Hon.  John  Jay  was  chosen  president  in  May,  1822, 
and  died  May  17,  1829,  aged  83.  He  resigned  on 
account  of  the  infirmities  of  age,  in  1828,  and  Rich 
ard  Varick,  Esq.  was  his  successor.  He  died  July 
30,  1831,  aged  79.  Hon.  John  Cotton  Smith  suc 
ceeded  him,  and  died  December  7,  1845.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Hon.  Theodore  Frelinghuysen,  LL.  D. 

For  many  years  the  secretaryship  of  the  society 
was  filled  by  clergymen  in  New  York.  There  were 


324  THE   HALF   CENTUKY. 

two,  and  sometimes  three   or  four.     The  following 
persons  have  been  secretaries  :  — 

Rev.  J.  M.  Mason,  D.  D.,  who  died  December  8, 
1829,  aged  60.  Rev.  J.  B.  Romeyn,  D.  D.  Rev.  J. 
Milnor,  D.  D.,  from  1820  to  1839  ;  died  April  8,  1845. 
Rev.  S.  S.  Woodhull,  D.  D.,  from  1820  to  1825; 
died  1825.  Rev.  T.  McAuley,  D.  D.5  from  1825  to 
1839.  Rev.  C.  G.  Somers,  from  1825  to  1833.  Rev. 
N.  Bangs,  D.  D.,  1827.  Rev.  J.  C.  Brigham,  D.  D., 
from  1827  to  the  present  time.  Rev.  S.  Cone,  from 
1833  to  1835.  Rev.  E.  S.  Janes,  D.  D.,  from  1839 
to  1843.  Rev.  N.  Levings,  D.  D.,  from  1843  to 
January  10,  1849,  at  which  time  he  died,  aged  53. 
Rev.  S.  J.  Prime,  from  1849  to  1850. 

There  was  no  secretary  who  devoted  his  whole 
time  to  the  business  of  the  society  till  Dr.  Brigham 
was  appointed,  in  1827.  He  was  aided  by  clergy 
men  in  New  York  till  1839,  when  it  was  deemed 
expedient  to  have  two  secretaries  permanently  em 
ployed.  Dr.  Janes  was  then  appointed.  In  1843,  he 
was  appointed  a  bishop  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church,  and  Dr.  Levings  succeeded  him.  It  at  length 
became  necessary,  on  account  of  the  enlargement  of 
the  society's  operations,  to  have  another  secretary. 
Immediately  after  Mr.  Prime  commenced  his  labors, 
Dr.  Levings  died  ;  and,  at  the  expiration  of  the  year, 
Mr.  Prime  resigned. 

The  treasurers  of  the  society  have,  for  the  most 
part,  been  men  of  business  in  New  York,  who  have 
performed  the  duties  of  the  office  gratuitously.  The 


THE   HALF    CENTURY.  325 

first  were  Richard  Varick,  W.  W.  Woolsey,  John 
Adams,  and  Hubert  Van  Wageneri.  In  1818,  John 
Nitchie  was  appointed  general  agent  and  accountant. 
In  1836,  he  became  treasurer,  and  Joseph  Hyde,  Esq. 
general  agent.  Mr.  Nitchie  died  January  3,  1838, 
and  Mr.  Hyde  still  continues  general  agent,  and  is 
also  assistant  treasurer. 

The  house  occupied  by  the  society  was  built  in 
1822,  and  cost  $22,500.  In  it  was  a  printing  office, 
bindery,  depository,  and  rooms  for  the  officers  of  the 
society.  In  1829,  it  was  found  necessary  to  erect  a 
new  printing  office,  to  enable  the  society  to  manufac 
ture  books  to  meet  the  demand.  A  building  for  that 
purpose  was  erected  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
street,  at  an  expense  of  $14,500.  Its  location  was 
inconvenient,  and,  still  more  room  being  wanted,  the 
society,  in  1831,  having  an  opportunity  to  purchase 
two  lots  adjoining  the  first  house,  did  so,  and,  having 
sold  the  house  and  lot  built  in  1829  for  what  it  cost, 
erected  two  new  buildings  on  these  lots,  for  $11,050. 
In  1849,  an  additional  story  was  put  upon  the 
original  building,  making  a  building  100  feet  on  Nas^ 
sau  Street,  four  stories  high,  and  100  feet  on  Theatre 
Alley,  connected  by  the  depository.  So  that  the 
buildings  cover  an  area  of  about  7,000  square  feet. 

In  May,  1829,  the  society  resolved  to  supply  every 
destitute  family  in  the  United  States  with  a  copy  of 
the  Bible  in  the  course  of  two  years,  provided  the 
auxiliary  societies  would  cooperate,  and  furnish  the 
means.  In  1832,  it  was  announced  that  the  work 
28 


326  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

was  nearly  completed,  and  that  provision  had  been 
made  for  finishing  it.  On  account  of  the  greatness 
of  the  work,  and  the  difficulty  of  performing  it,  it  is 
likely  that  many  counties  were  overlooked,  and,  in 
consequence  of  the  continual  influx  of  foreigners, 
and  the  constant  emigration  from  the  old  states  to 
the  new,  many  families  must  undoubtedly  have  been 
omitted. 

In  1833,  it  was  proposed  to  supply  the  destitute 
families  of  the  world,  who  were  able  and  willing  to 
read  the  Bible,  with  a  copy  of  the  same,  within  a 
definite  period,  provided  other  national  societies 
would  unite  with  the  American  Society  in  the  effort. 
The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  considered  the 
undertaking  too  vast,  and  not  concurring,  the  project 
was  abandoned  for  the  present. 

In  1835,  the  society  resolved,  by  the  aid  of  the 
friends  of  the  Bible,  to  supply  all  the  children  in  the 
United  States  under  15  years  of  age,  who  were  able 
to  read,  with  a  copy  of  the  Scriptures.  Much  was 
done  in  successive  years  for  the  accomplishment  of 
this  object,  but  the  time  has  not  yet  come  when  we 
can  say  every  child  and  youth  has  a  Bible  he  can 
call  his  own. 

In  1835,  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  of  Boston,  caused  to  be 
printed  the  New  Testament  in  raised  letters,  for  the 
blind.  It  was  done  chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the 
American  Bible  Society.  See  Blind  Asylums,  Chap 
ter  III. 

The  receipts  of  the  society  have  been,  at  different 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  327 

periods,  as  follows:  in  1820,  ,$41,361  ;  in  1825, 
$50,167;  in  1830,  $149,267;  in  1835,  $100,806; 
in  1840,  $97,355;  and  in  1849,  $251,970. 

The  great  advance  in  1830  was  in  consequence  of 
the  resolution  to  supply  every  family  in  the  United 
States  in  two  years. 

The  reduction  in  prices  has  been  considerable 
within  30  years. 

The  minion  Bible,  sheep,  lettered,  cost,  in  1820, 
sixty  cents;  in  1849,  thirty-seven  and  a  half.  The 
nonpareil^  sheep,  lettered,  in  1828,  fifty  cents ;  in 
1849,  twenty-five  cents.  The  nonpareil  testament, 
in  1830,  12  cents  ;  in  1849,  six  cents.  The  reduction 
in  prices  of  those  which  are  in  extra  binding  has  not 
been  as  great. 

As  early  as  1820,  the  society  began  to  collect  a 
library  of  Bibles  in  various  languages,  of  versions, 
translations,  concordances,  and  other  books  throwing 
light  upon  the  history  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  It  is 
supposed  that  most  of  them  have  been  given  to  the 
society  by  benevolent  individuals.  Many  of  these 
books  are  rare,  and  of  great  value.  The  library  now 
contains  between  1200  and  1500  volumes. 

The  society  has  eight  steam  power  presses  con 
stantly  employed,  some  of  which  are  so  large,  that 
they  can  print  40  pages  of  the  common  12mo.  Bible 
at  one  impression ;  and  such  is  the  rapidity  of  their 
motion,  that  they  throw  off  780  such  sheets,  or 
31,200  pages,  in  an  hour. 

In  July,  1835,  the  managers  of  the  Bible  Society 


328  THE  HALF  CENTUKY. 

learned  that  the  Bible,  translated  into  the  Burman 
language  by  Dr.  Judson,  of  the  Baptist  mission,  and 
which  they  had  aided  in  printing,  had  words  sig 
nifying  immerse  and  immersion,  instead  of  baptize 
and  baptism.  The  society,  being  composed  of  differ 
ent  denominations,  by  their  constitution  was  required 
to  circulate  the  Bible  in  .common  use  —  King 
James's  version.  The  managers  understood  that  they 
were  not  authorized  to  expend  their  funds  for  print 
ing  translations  of  the  Bible  made  on  different  prin 
ciples.  The  common  versions  of  the  Bible  have 
merely  transferred  the  word  baptize  from  the  Greek, 
without  translating  it.  They  maintained  that  they 
could  not  consistently  patronize  an  edition  of  the 
Bible  that  translated  those  words  according  to  the 
views  of  a  particular  sect.  These  facts,  when  made 
public,  were  a  theme  for  much  discussion  and  con 
troversy  for  several  years.  The  result  was,  that  many 
of  the  Baptist  denomination  withdrew  their  support 
'  from  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  organized  one 
which  allows  them  to  appropriate  funds  to  aid  in 
printing  Baptist  Bibles  at  the  mission  stations.  It 
was  organized  in  1837,  and  is  called  the  American 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  receipts  of  this 
society,  in  1848,  were  $31,521.  Prior  to  May,  1848, 
it  had  published  300,000  volumes  in  foreign  lands, 
containing  the  whole  Bible  or  a  part  of  it,  and 
262,734  at  its  depository  in  New  York.  They  have 
published  the  New  Testament  ia  German,  French, 
and  Italian. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  329 

The  Baptist  society  publish  the  common  version 
in  English.  In  1850,  an  effort  was  made  to  substi 
tute  in  its  place  a  new  translation,  in  which  immerse 
should  be  used  instead  of  baptize.  The  society  re 
jected  the  proposal,  and  a  new  society  has  been  organ 
ized,  of  which  Rev.  S.  Cone,  of  New  York,  is  pres 
ident.  This  society  intends  to  publish  a  Baptist 
Bible. 


SECTION  5.      Tract  Societies. 

THE  domestic  missionary  societies  very  early 
adopted  the  practice  of  supplying  their  missionaries 
with  religious  books  for  distribution  in  the  new  set 
tlements.  In  1807,  a  Tract  Society  was  formed  in 
Connecticut  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  tracts,  of 
eight  or  ten  pages  on  an  average,  for  sale  to  those 
Avho  were  in  the  habit  of  distributing  religious  books. 
Its  receipts  during  the  first  year  were  $568 ;  with 
this  they  published  48,000  tracts,  stitched  in  blue 
covers.  Those  who  subscribed  to  the  funds  received 
a  certain  amount. 

The  Vermont  Tract  Society  was  formed  in  1808, 
and  the  New  York  Tract  Society  in  1812. 

In  the  spring  of  1814,  the  New  England  Tract 
Society  was  formed,  and  in  1816  was  incorporated  by 
the  Massachusetts  legislature.  A  little  more  than 
$3,000  were  subscribed  at  its  formation,  or  soon  after, 
and  300,000  tracts  were  published  the  first  year,  em 
bracing  fifty  different  kinds.  In  the  preamble  of  the 
28* 


330  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

constitution  of  the  society,  it  was  said  that  tracts 
had  been  distributed  in  this  country  for  about  twelve 
years,  in  which  Christians  in  New  England  had  taken 
an  active  part.  None  of  the  societies  that  had  been 
formed,  however,  were  on  a  plan  sufficiently  exten 
sive  or  permanent  to  answer  the  purposes  for  which 
such  an  institution  was  needed. 

The  first  tract  societies  were  formed  in  Europe, 
and  were  suggested  by  the  labors  of  Voltaire,  who 
published  small  books,  of  an  infidel  character,  for 
gratuitous  distribution  among  the  common  people,  for 
the  overthrow  of  Christianity.  The  friends  of  reli 
gion,  deriving  a  hint  from  his  efforts,  made  use  of  the 
same  means  for  the  defence  of  the  cause  that  was 
dear  to  their  hearts,  and  thus  foiled  the  enemy  by 
turning  against  him  his  own  weapons: 

The  whole  amount  of  money  received  by  the 
New  England  Society  during  the  first  five  years  was 
in  donations  $3,145,  and  for  tracts  sold  $7,913. 

In  October,  1822,  Mr.  William  A.  Hallock,  having 
just  completed  his  course  of  study  at  Andover,  was 
commissioned  to  act  as  agent  of  the  society  for  one 
year.  He  was  the  first  person  ever  employed  in  this 
country  in  such  an  agency  for  so  long  a  time. 

In  June,  1823,  the  New  England  Tract  Society, 
by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  took  for  its  name  the 
American  Tract  Society.  Andover  continued  to  be 
the  centre  of  its  publishing  operations  until  1826, 
though  it  had  a  depository  in  Boston,  and  an  agent 
there,  through  whom  business  could  be  transacted. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY. 


>> 

^Q    331 


The  original  design  of  the  society  was  to  manufac 
ture  tracts  for  sale  to  those  who  wished  to  buy  for 
their  own  use  or  for  distribution. 

The-  receipts  of  the  society  for  the  year  ending 
May,  1825,  from  sales  and  donations,  was  $10,802, 
and  for  the  year  ending  May,  1826,  $6,335.  The 
Christian  Almanac  was  commenced  in  1821. 

The  American  Tract  Society,  the  centre  of  whose 
operations  is  at  New  York,  was  organized  in  May, 
1825,  and  held  its  first  anniversary  in  May,  1826. 
Rev.  W.  A.  Hallock  was  appointed  corresponding 
secretary,  which  office  he  has  holden  to  the  present 
time.  It  was  an  independent  society.  During  the 
first  year  of  its  existence,  a  plan  of  union  was  formed 
between  it  and  the  society  at  Boston,  and  the  union 
consummated.  The  national  society,  by  this  arrange 
ment,  selects  and  prints  all  the  tracts.  Consequently, 
when  the  Boston  society  ceased  "to  print,  Andover 
ceased  to  be  the  centre  of  its  operations,  and  the  de 
pository  was  wholly  removed  to  Boston,  and  occupied 
separate  rooms  in  the  basement  of  the  Hanover 
Street  church,  and  was  burnt,  with  the  church,  Jan 
uary  31,  1830.  The  loss  to  the  Tract  Society  was 
$2,500.  The  Rev.  S.  Bliss  is  its  secretary. 

The  society  at  New  York  revised  the  tracts  pub 
lished  by  the  Boston  society,  and  republished  most 
of  them.  They  omitted  some  entirely,  and  substi 
tuted  others  in  their  place  ;  they  abridged  many  of 
the  titles,  and  stitched  those  exceeding  eight  pages 
in  colored  covers.  They  stereotyped  each  tract,  and 


332  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

thus  were  able  to  furnish  new  editions  as  they  might 
be  called  for. 

By  the  liberality  of  a  few  benevolent  individuals 
in  New  York,  a  house  was  erected  for  the  use  of  the 
society,  and  tracts  were  printed  in  other  languages. 
Donations  were  made  by  the  society  of  tracts  to 
home  missionaries,  and  to  individuals  whose  business 
or  location  gave  them  facilities  for  distributing  them 
where  they  were  needed. 

In  1829,  many  cities  and  villages  adopted  the  plan 
of  putting  a  tract  monthly  in  every  family  that  would 
receive  it.  This  mode  of  doing  good  was  very  pop 
ular  and  very  successful.  It  benefited  not  only  those 
who. received  them,  but  those  who  were  engaged  in 
distributing  them. 

In  1833,  the  society  had  issued  276  tracts  in  Eng 
lish,  40  in  French,  29  in  Spanish,  56  in  German,  and 
a  very  few  in  Portuguese,  Welsh,  and  Italian.  They 
had  also  98  children's  books,  and  about  20  bound  vol 
umes  ;  the  first,  Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress,  was 
published  in  1829. 

In  1834,  the  volume  enterprise  commenced  in  the 
Southern  States,  and  in  1835  in  the  Northern.  This 
consisted  in  sending  an  agent  to  a  given  place  with  a 
quantity  of  bound  volumes,  and,  by  the  aid  of  a  few 
individuals,  offering  these  volumes  for  sale  to  every 
family  in  the  place.  The  agent  was  paid  for  his  ser 
vices  by  the  receipt  of  a  small  percentage  on  the 
books  he  sold.  The  object  of  this  enterprise  was  to 
supply  families  with  cheap  religious  books,  and,  by 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  333 

offering  them  to  all,  to  gain  access  to  many  who  were 
destitute  of  such  reading.  Much  good  was  thus  ac 
complished.  The  sales,  however,  in  small  towns  and 
in  new  settlements,  sparsely  inhabited,  would  not 
yield  a  percentage  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  an  agent.  In  a  few  years,  all  those  places  in  the 
land  which  an  agent  could  afford  to  visit  were  sup 
plied,  and  yet  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole  popula 
tion  had  been  reached. 

The  Rev.  R.  S.  Cook  was  obliged,  in  1838,  to 
leave  his  pastoral  charge  in  Lanesboro',  Massachu 
setts,  in  consequence  .of  the  loss  of  his  voice,  and 
engaged  in  the  sale  of  the  Tract  Society's  volumes. 
When  he  had  regained  his  health,  he  had  become  so 
attached  to  the  means  of  cure,  that  he  continued  in 
the  work,  and  from  his  experience,  and  from  informa 
tion  derived  from  the  experience  of  others,  the  sys 
tem  of  colportage  had  its  origin,  which  differs  from 
what  is  called  the  "  volume  enterprise  "  in  this  —  that 
the  agent  receives  a  stipulated  sum  for  his  services, 
and  can  therefore  labor  as  faithfully  in  a  sparsely 
settled  township  as  in  the  crowded  city,  and  can  de 
vote  some  time  to  religious  conversation,  without 
feeling  that  he  must  press  forward  and  sell  a  certain 
amount  each  day.  This  work  was  commenced  on  a 
small  scale  in  1840  and  1841,  but  was  not  made  a 
prominent  part  of  the  society's  labor  till  after  the 
great  meeting  holden  in  New  York  in  October,  1842. 

A  man  is  selected  who  is  judged  to  be  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  people  among  whom  he  is  to  labor ; 


334  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

he  goes  to  every  house,  conversing  with  families  and 
individuals,  selling  books  where  he  can,  and  giving 
to  those  who  cannot  pay  for  them,  provided  there  is 
a  reasonable  prospect  of  their  being  read. 

This  is  thought  by  many  to  be  an  expensive  mode 
of  doing  good,  but  it  is  the  only  way  in  which  the 
people  in  many  places  can  be  reached.  In  countries 
too  thinly  inhabited  to  have  the  gospel  regularly 
preached,  and  where  they  are  perishing  for  lack  of 
knowledge,  the  colporteurs  are  the  only  persons  who 
call  the  attention  of  the  people  to  the  subject  of  re 
ligion. 

During  the  year  ending  May,  1843,  27  colporteurs 
were  employed  by  the  society;  during  that  ending 
May,  1847,  267  were  employed.  They  receive  $150 
annually,  in  addition  to  their  expenses. 

The  society  pays  usually  $10,000  annually  to  the 
missions  of  the  American  Board,  towards  printing 
tracts  in  languages  spoken  by  heathen  nations. 

The  receipts  of  the  American  Society  at  New  York 
were,  in  1828,  $45,000;  in  1838,  $91,732;  in  1848, 
$237,296  ;  and  in  1850,  including  sales,  $308,266. 

In  February,  1845,  a  charge  was  brought  against 
the  society  of  mutilating  and  altering  the  books  they 
published,  which  for  a  time  elicited  considerable  feel 
ing.  The  publishing  committee  is  composed  of  per 
sons  of  different  denominations,  and  no  book  is  pub 
lished  unless  it  be  approved  by  all.  Sometimes  a 
very  desirable  book,  in  other  respects,  may  have  a 
paragraph  offensive  to  a  Baptist,  Methodist,  or  Pres- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  335 

byterian,  and  it  is  expunged.  The  synod  of  New 
York  appointed  a  committee  to  examine  this  matter, 
and  report.  It  was  thought  that  the  society  had 
taken  greater  liberties  with  some  authors  than  they 
were  justified  in  doing.  This  was  more  particularly 
true  of  some  books  whose  authors  were  dead. 

It  was  finally  disposed  of  by  the  promise  of  the 
publishing  committee  that,  in  future,  they  would  state 
distinctly  on  the  title-page  the  extent  of  the  altera 
tions  they  had  made,  so  that  they,  and  not  the  author 
or  his  friends,  should  be  responsible  for  what  was 
added  or  suppressed.  For  a  more  complete  history, 
see  the  25th  report  of  the  American  Tract  Society. 


SECTION  6.     Societies  for  the  Moral  and  Religious 
Benefit  of  Seamen. 

SAILORS  were  regarded  in  former  times  as  a  hard 
ened  class  of  men,  who  had  fled  from  all  the  ameni 
ties  of  civilized  life,  and  were  not  to  be  reached  by 
sympathy  or  kindness. 

At  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812,  there  were  indi 
viduals  that  began  to  inquire  if  something  could  not 
be  done  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  those  whose 
home  is  upon  the  deep. 

A  society  was  organized  in  New  York,  in  1816, 
for  promoting  the  gospel  among  seamen  in  that  port. 
A  church  was  built  for  their  accommodation  iu  1819, 
where  the  gospel  has  ever  since  been  regularly 


336  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

preached.  This  was  the  first  united  public  effort  for 
the  improvement  of  seamen  that  was  made  in  the 
United  States. 

In  October,  1819,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Eastburn,  a 
man  who  was  devoted  to  doing  good  to  his  fellow- 
men,  commenced  a  meeting  for  mariners  in  Philadel 
phia  j  in  1824  a  house  was  built,  and  a  church  organ 
ized  in  1830. 

The  first  efforts  were  made  in  Baltimore  in  1823, 
a  house  erected  in  1825,  and  a  society  formed  the 
same  year. 

The  city  mission  of  Boston  began  to  bestow  labor 
upon  seamen  in  1819.  The  Seamen's  Friend  Society 
was  organized  in  January,  1828,  and  a  house  for 
public  worship  erected  soon  after. 

Similar  operations  were  commenced  in  Portland, 
Maine,  in  1823. 

The  American  Seamen's  Friend  Society  was  or 
ganized  in  1827,  arid  its  annual  meeting  is  holden  at 
New  York.  It  receives  the  aid  not  only  of  the  in 
habitants  on  the  sea-coast,  but  of  those  residing  in  the 
interior.  It  aims  not  only  to  provide  the  sailor  with 
religious  instruction  while  in  port,  but  to-  establish 
boarding-houses,  where  they  will  be  kept  from  intox 
icating  drinks  and  from  squandering  their  money. 
They  are  encouraged  to  deposit  their  earnings  in  sav 
ings  banks,  and  are  taught  to  respect  themselves,  and 
that  there  are  those  who  care  for  them. 

Chapels  and  boarding-houses  for  seamen  are  opened 
in  all  the  commercial  towns  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  at 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  337 

Havre,  in  France,  at  Canton,  China,  at  Honolulu 
and  Lahaina,  Sandwich  Islands,  and  at  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales. 

The  society  commenced  in  1828  the  Sailor's  Mag 
azine,  a  monthly  periodical  of  thirty-two  pages.  It 
has  now  two  corresponding  secretaries,  Rev.  J. 
Spaulding,  and  Rev.  H.  Loomis,  whose  office  is  in 
the  city  of  New  York. 

The  receipts  of  the  society  are  not  very  great ; 
for  the  year  ending  May,  1849,  they  were  $18,582. 
This,  however,  is  not  all  that  is  contributed  for  the 
seaman's  cause.  The  local  societies  scattered  along 
the  sea-coast  sustain  chapels  and  preachers  in  their 
own  vicinity ;  a  considerable  amount  of  funds  is 
used  in  this  way,  which  is  not  included  in  the  receipts 
of  the  national  society. 

The  Boston  Seaman's  Society  is  regarded  as  a 
state  society ;  and  Rev.  W.  Bushnell,  its  secretary, 
acts  as  general  agent  for  the  cause  in  New  England. 
A  very  great  change  has  taken  place  in  the  character 
of  sailors  since  these  efforts  for  their  moral  improve 
ment  were  commenced.  They  are  found  to  be  as 
susceptible  of  religious  impressions  as  any  class  of 
men  in  the  community. 


SECTION  7.     Jewish  and  Protestant  Societies. 

Two  societies  have   been   organized,   the   specific 
object  of  which  is  to  induce  others  to  abandon  the 
29 


338  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

religion  in  which  they  have  been  educated,  and  to 
embrace  a  system  essentially  different. 

One  of  these  is  the  American  Society  for  Amelior 
ating  the  Condition  of  the  Jews.  It  was  organized 
in  New  York,  and  held  its  first  annual  meeting  in 
1823.  The  Ladies'  Boston  Jews  Society  was  organ 
ized  in  1816.  The  Boston  society  has  acted  upon 
the  Jews  in  foreign  lands  through  the  American 
Board. 

The  American  society  at  first  intended  to  open  an 
asylum  in  the  United  States,  where  converted  Jews 
might  come  from  other  countries  and  be  relieved 
from  the  persecutions  to  which  they  would  be  and 
were  exposed.  It  was  thought  that  many  would  the 
more  readily  renounce  Judaism,  if  they  foresaw  that 
they  would  have  sympathy  and  encouragement. 
The  society  purchased  a  farm,  and  at  one  time  had 
three  or  four  converted  Jews.  The  plan  did  not 
succeed,  the  farm  was  sold,  and  the  money  put  to 
interest.  The  society  continued  to  hold  its  annual 
meetings,  but  did  very  little,  till  within  a  few  years. 

There  are  many  Jews  in  the  large  cities  of  the 
United  States,  and  converted  Jews  are  now  employed 
by  the  society  to  visit  them,  and  get  access  to  them 
in  whatever  way  they  can.  They  distribute  among 
them  the  New  Testament,  and  tracts  adapted  to  their 
wants.  They  publish  a  monthly  periodical,  called 
the  Jewish  Chronicle.  The  receipts  of  the  society 
are  about  $8,000  per  annum. 

The  other  society  to  which  I  allude  is  the  Ameri- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  339 

can  Protestant  Society.  In  1832,  Dr.  Brownlee,  of 
New  York,  held  a  controversial  correspondence  with 
the  Romish  priests  of  that  city,  which  was  continued 
for  some  time,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
an  anti-Catholic  newspaper,  and  in  the  waking  up  of 
an  interest  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  Catholic 
immigrants  to  this  country.  Out  of  this  grew  a  so 
ciety,  whose  object  was  to  do  them  good.  In  1839, 
another  society,  called  the  Foreign  Evangelical  So 
ciety,  which  grew  out  of  the  labors  and  travels 
of  Dr.  Baird  in  Europe,  was  formed.  The  object 
was  to  send  the  gospel  to  the  Catholics  in  Europe. 
In  1843,  another  society  was  formed,  called  the 
Christian  Alliance,  the  object  of  which  was  to  send 
the  gospel  into  Italy. 

In  1849,  these  three  societies  were  united,  and  the 
new  one  is  called  the  American  and  Foreign  Chris 
tian  Union.  Rev.  Dr.  Baird  and  Rev.  H.  Norton  are 
the  secretaries. 


SECTION  8.     Benevolence  of  the  Age. 

THERE  are  some,  who,  having  accumulated  great 
wealth,  as  the  infirmities  of  age  multiply,  and  death 
seems  apparently  near,  feel  called  upon  to  make  some 
disposition  of  their  property.  Some  of  this  descrip 
tion  have  no  families  depending  upon  them  for  sup 
port  ;  and  the  distribution  of  their  estates  in  the 
manner  prescribed  by  law  might  not,  on  the  whole, 


340  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

be  best.  They  are  obliged  to  appropriate  it  to  some 
public  charity.  Those  who  give  away  their  money 
under  such  circumstances  cannot  be  called  benevo 
lent.  They  have  used  it  as  long  as  they  can,  and 
must  now  leave  it  to  heirs,  they  know  not  who  ^r 
distribute  it  in  a  manner  that  is  most  pleasing  to 
them. 

The  most  illustrious  instance  of  this  kind  of  mu 
nificence  that  has  been  recorded  during  the  last  fifty 
years  is  that  of  Stephen  Girard,  of  Philadelphia,  a 
merchant  and  banker,  who  died  in  1831,  aged  eighty- 
four.  His  property  amounted  to  eight  or  ten  millions 
of  dollars.  His  largest  bequest  was  two  millions,  to 
gether  with  what  should  remain  after  other  bequests 
were  paid,  to  found  and  support  a  college  in  Philadel 
phia  for  the  education  of  white  orphan  boys. 

It  may  be  inferred  that  this  was  not  an  act  of 
Christian  benevolence,  from  the  fact  that  he  enjoined 
upon  its  trustees  "that  no  ecclesiastic,  minister,  or 
missionary,  of  any  sect  whatever,  shall  ever  hold  or 
exercise  any  station  or  duty  in  said  college,  nor  shall 
any  such  person  ever  be  admitted  for  any  purpose,  or 
as  a  visitor,  within  the  premises  appropriated  to  the 
purposes  of  said  college."  The  reason  assigned  for 
this  strange  prohibition  was  a  desire  to  shut  out  the 
children  from  all  sectarian  influences,  till  they  should 
be  old  enough  and  wise  enough  to  choose  for  them 
selves. 

The  will  of  Oliver  Smith,  of  Hatfield,  who  died 
in  1846,  proves  him  to  belong  to  the  same  class  of 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  341 

munificent  men.  The  following  report  of  the  trus 
tees  of  the  "Smith  Charities"  will  show  the  manner 
in  which  he  disposed  of  his  money,  and  the  condi 
tion  of  it  in  May,  1850 :  — 

"  These  two  funds  are  called  the  miscellaneous  and 
the  contingent.  The  former  arises  from  a  legacy  by 
the  late  Oliver  Smith,  of  Hatfield,  of  $200,000, 
which  is  to  be  kept  at  interest  until  it  amounts  to 
$400,000,  when,  by  the  provisions  of  the  will,  it  is 
to  be  divided  into  three  portions,  as  follows :  Into  a 
fund  of  $30,000,  which  shall  accumulate  for  sixty 
years  from  the  testator's  decease,  and  then  be  applied 
to  the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  school  at 
Northampton;  $10,000  for  the  use  of  the  American 
Colonization  Society ;  and  $360,000  for  the  benefit 
of  indigent  boys,  girls,  young  women,  and  widows, 
in  eight  specific  towns.  The  contingent  fund,  from 
the  same  source,  is  one  from  the  income  of  which 
all  the  expenses  of  managing  the  several  funds  shall 
be  paid. 

"  The  report  represents  the  miscellaneous  fund  now 
to  amount  to  $232,776.80,  and  the  contingent  fund 
to  $211,541.82.  Aggregate,  $444,318.62." 

The  agricultural  school  is  to  be  established  in  the 
year  1906,  the  Colonization  Society  is  to  receive 
$10,000  about  1860,  and  about  the  same  time  indi 
gent  boys,  &c.,  in  eight  towns,  are  to  begin  to  be 
benefited  by  his  donation.  It  seems,  from  the  above 
report,  that  he  gives  about  one  half  of  his  money  to 
those  who  take  care  of  the  other  half.  Mr.  Smith 
29* 


342  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

seems  to  have  determined  that  the  present  generation 
should  have  the  least  possible  benefit  from  the  use  of 
his  money. 

There  is  another  class  of  benevolent  men,  who 
have  abounded  more  during  the  last  fifty  years  than 
at  any  period  since  the  first  settlement  of  our  coun 
try.  They  are  those  who,  Avhile  living,  and  at  their 
decease  also,  have  given  large  sums  to  colleges,  hos 
pitals,  asylums,  and  other  public  institutions  for  the 
benefit  of  those  who  need  it  in  all  future  time. 
Among  this  class  may  be  ranked  the  Phillipses,  Bart- 
letts,  and  others,  by  whose  munificence  the  theologi 
cal  seminary  at  Andover  came  into  being  ;  Butler, 
who  established  in  Providence  an  asylum  for  the 
insane;  Lyman,  who  established  the  State  Reform 
School  at  Westborough,  Massachusetts  ;  Perkins,  who 
endowed  an  Asylum  for  the  Blind  ;  and  Dwight,  the 
munificent  patron  of  normal  schools. 

The  attention  of  wealthy  men  has  been  particu 
larly  directed  to  the  colleges  of  our  country  within 
the  last  ten  or  twelve  years.  The  Lawrences,  Wil- 
liston,  and  others,  have  reared  monuments  for  them 
selves  more  imperishable  than  marble. 

I  commenced  this  article  more  particularly  to  speak 
of  another  class  of  benevolent  persons  —  of  those  who 
make  sacrifices  that  they  may  be  able  to  give  for  the 
spread  of  the  gospel,  and  to  promote  the  triumphs  of 
the  Redeemer's  kingdom.  During  the  last  forty 
year's,  there  have  been  found  individuals,  and  the 
number  has  been  gradually  increasing,  who  have 


T1IE  HALF  CENTURY.  343 

made  it  a  religious  duty  to  lay  by  in  store,  as  God 
prospered  them,  a  portion  of  their  income,  to  be  ex 
pended  in  carrying  forward  the  great  work  of  Chris 
tian  missions.  There  has  been,  during  the  period  of 
which  I  speak,  a  more  perfect  development  of  the 
benevolent  spirit  of  the  gospel  in  the  souls  of  men 
than  has  been  known  at  any  previous  time  since  the 
age  of  the  apostles.  These  exhibitions  of  the  benev 
olent  spirit  have  not  been  confined  to  the  rich  ;  many 
who  have  been  poor  in  this  world's  goods  have  done 
what  they  could.  There  is  now  living  a  colored 
woman,  whose  wages  have  been  one  dollar  a  week, 
and  whose  religious  charities  for  several  years  have 
amounted  to  $32  annually.  When  asked  what  she 
would  do  if  sick,  or  unable  to  labor  by  reason  of  the 
infirmities  pf  age,  she  replied,  she  would  go  to  the 
alrnshouse.  Similar  instances  of  faith  and  devoted- 
ness  are  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  churches  of 
Christ  in  this  land. 

When  the  American  Board  of  Missions  was  organ 
ized,  one  of  its  members  received  a  letter  from  Mr. 
Solomon  Goodale,  of  Vermont,  a  plain  farmer,  in 
which  he  promised  and  paid  $500  for  the  immediate, 
use  of  the  Board,  and  $1,000  towards  a  permanent 
fund.  Prior  to  1816,  he  gave  to  the  Board  $3,885. 
For  a  moderate  farmer,  at  that  time  this  was  a  noble 
instance  of  liberality.  He  was  one  of  those  who 
were  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  engage  in  the 
work  of  publishing  the  gospel  to  every  creature.  As 
soon  as  the  channel  was  opened,  the  stream  of  his 
chanty  began  to  flow. 


344  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

A  young  merchant  in  Boston,  N.  R.  Cobb,  member 
of  a  Baptist  church,  on  commencing  business,  resolved 
to  give  away  one  fourth  of  his  net  profits,  till  he 
should  be  worth  $20,000,  and  then  one  half,  and 
when  worth  $50,000,  he  would  give  all  his  profits. 
It  appeared,  at  the  close  of  his  life,  that  he  had  given 
away  $40,000. 

The  awakened  spirit  of  Christian  philanthropy 
that  has  been  increasing  in  our  land  during  the  last 
forty  years  is  one  of  the  loveliest  features  of  the  age. 
Man  begins  to  feel  for  man;  there  is  " flesh  in  his 
obdurate  heart." 


THE  HALF   CENTURY.  345 

CHAPTER   IX. 

RELIGIOUS  CONTROVERSIES. 

SECTION  1.      Unitarianism. 

IT  is  not  my  purpose  to  go  back  and  inquire  into 
the  origin  of  Unitarianism  in  this  country,  nor  to 
show  how  the  way  was  prepared  for  its  introduction. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  there  was 
but  one  congregation  that  was  professedly  Unitarian, 
and  that  was  an  Episcopal  congregation  worshipping 
in  King's,  since  called  the  Stone,  Chapel,  in  Boston, 
of  which  Dr.  James  Freeman,  who  died  in  1835,  was 
pastor. 

My  aim  will  be  to  give  a  sketch  of  its  development 
and  progress  during  the  period  under  review.  I  shall 
arrange  the  leading  facts  in  chronological  order. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  century,  and  for 
several  years  after,  the  subject  of  Christ's  divinity 
was  seldom  alluded  to  in  the  pulpits  of  Boston  and 
vicinity.  If  there  were  any  that  did  not  believe, 
they  did  not  publicly  declare  it.  There  was  an  ex 
tensive  prejudice  against  the  doctrines  of  Calvinism, 
and  very  few  of  those  who  embraced  them  ventured 
boldly  to  preach  them. 

The  first  book  published  in  the  United  States, 
written  by  an  American,  that  denied  the  divinity  of 


346  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Christ,  was  a  treatise  on  the  atonement,  by  Adin  Bal- 
lou,  a  Uriiversalist  minister,  of  Boston.  It  appeared 
in  1803.  It  has  had  much  influence  in  converting 
Universalists  to  Unitarianism. 

In  1805,  Rev.  John  Sherman,  pastor  of  a  Congre 
gational  church  in  Mansfield,  Connecticut,  was  dis 
missed  from  his  charge  for  denying  the  supreme 
divinity  of  Christ.  He  published,  soon  after,  a  de 
fence  of  his  views.  He  finally  left  the  ministry,  and 
before  his  death  ceased  to  be  a  man  of  sober  life. 

In  February,  1805,  Rev.  Henry  Ware,  of  Hingham, 
was  appointed  Hollis  professor  of  divinity  in  Harvard 
College.  The  professorship  was  founded  by  Thomas 
Hollis,  of  London.  He  required  that  the  persons 
who,  from  time  to  time,  should  be  appointed  to  fill 
that  office,  should  be  men  "  of  sound  and  orthodox 
principles."  Some  of  the  board  of  overseers,  suspect 
ing  that  Mr.  Ware  was  not  "sound  and  orthodox," 
proposed  that  he  should  be  examined ;  but  the  mat 
ter  was  overruled  by  his  friends,  who  maintained  that 
he  was  orthodox,  and  "  the  suggestion  that  he  might 
be  an  Arminian  was  regarded  as  a  slanderous  imputa 
tion."  The  chair  was  accordingly  obtained,  and  his 
real  sentiments  not  divulged.  In  1805,  as  I  have 
said  in  another  chapter,  the  Panoplist  was  commenced. 
It  was  decidedly  orthodox,  and  manfully  defended 
the  doctrine  of  Christ's  divinity  ;  it  did  much,  in  those 
days  of  silence  and  concealment,  to  resist  the  under 
mining  current  of  error.  In  the  preface  to  the  fourth 
volume,  the  editor,  speaking  of  having  been  censured 


THE  HALF   CENTURY.  347 

for  some  things  he  had  published,  said,  "  When  un 
common  zeal  is  displayed,  and  unusual  means  em 
ployed,  to  sap  the  foundations  of  the  faith  once 
delivered  to  the  saints,  arid  to  rob  the  Son  of  God  of 
his  glory,  I  deem  it  incumbent  on  those,  who  stand 
up  for  the  defence  of  the  gospel,  to  counteract  that 
zeal,  and  expose  and  frustrate  those  means." 

In  December,  1808,  Rev.  John  Codman  was  settled 
at  Dorchester.  In  his  answer  to  the  church  and  soci 
ety,  he  declared  his  belief  in  the  Calvinistic  system 
of  doctrines,  and  said,  "  as  Arian  and  Socinian  senti 
ments  have,  of  late  years,  crept  into  some  churches, 
he  thought  it  his  duty  to  declare  that  he  believed  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  to  be  the  only  living 
and  true  God."  The  ordination  sermon  was  preached 
by  Dr.  Channing. 

In  about  a  year  after  his  settlement,  forty  of  his 
parishioners  expressed  their  dissatisfaction  with  him, 
because  he  did  not  exchange  with  Boston  ministers. 
He  claimed  that  it  was  his  privilege  to  exchange 
with  whom  he  pleased,  and  refused  to  give  any 
pledge  on  that  subject.  Some  of  his  people  offered 
their  pews  for  sale,  and  subsequently,  at  a  parish 
meeting,  a  vote  was  obtained  to  dissolve  the  pastoral 
relation.  The  subject,  however,  was  referred  to  an 
ecclesiastical  council,  the  members  of  which  were 
equally  divided.  The  result  of  the  controversy  at 
Dorchester  was,  that  the  disaffected  withdrew,  and 
Codman  retained  his  place.  After  that,  it  was  under 
stood  that  a  minister  might  regulate  his  own  ex 
changes. 


348  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  1810,  Thomas  and  Noah  Worcester,  two  brothers, 
then  residing  in  New  Hampshire,  published  a  book 
entitled  Bible  News,  in  which  the  supreme  divinity 
of  Christ  was  denied. 

In  1811,  Rev.  Abiel  Abbot,  pastor  of  a  Congrega 
tional  church  in  Coventry,  Connecticut,  was  dis 
missed,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  unsound  in  the 
faith.  He  was  a  member  of  the  council  that  dis 
missed  Sherman. 

At  this  time,  there  were  but  two  Congregational 
ministers  in  Boston — Griffin,  of  Park  Street,  and 
Huntington,  of  the  Old  South,  who  openly  and  bold 
ly  avowed  the  orthodox  faith.  At  that  time,  says 
Dr.  Dwight,  "  Unitarianism  seemed  to  be  the  predom 
inating  system  ;  "  and  yet  none  of  the  clergy  acknowl 
edged  themselves  to  have  adopted  that  system. 
Porter,  of  Roxbury,  in  his  convention  sermon,  in 
1810,  said  of  the  doctrines  of  original  sin,  Trinity, 
&c.,  "  Neque  tenco,  neque  rcfello  "  — I  neither  affirm 
nor  deny. 

In  1812,  Dr.  Kirkland  was  elected  president  of 
Harvard  College.  It  has  since  been  said  by  his 
friends,  that  he  could  not  have  been  elected,  if  it  had 
been  known  that  he  was  a  defender  of  Unitarian 
sentiments. 

The  style  of  preaching  adopted  by  many  at  that 
time  was  eminently  conservative ;  nothing  was  said 
by  them  which  afforded  conclusive  proof  tnat  they 
had  or  had  not  departed  from  the  faith  of  their  Puri 
tan  fathers.  When  councils  were  called  for  the 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  349 

ordination  of  a  clergyman,  especially  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Massachusetts,  it  was  difficult  to  ascertain  the 
precise  sentiments  of  the  candidate.  There  were  so 
many  who  thought  great  particularity  unnecessary, 
that  the  efforts  of  those  who  were  in  favor  of  a  rigid 
examination  were  thwarted. 

In  1812,  there  was  published,  in  England,  the 
Memoir  of  Lindsey,  by  Belsham,  the  life  of  an  avowed 
Unitarian,  by  a  Unitarian.  Lindsey  had  corresponded 
with  American  clergymen.  In  that  Memoir  Belsham 
inserted  a  chapter  upon  American  Unitarianism.  A 
few  copies  found  their  way  to  this  country,  but  did 
not  fall  at  first  into  the  hands  of  any  who  were  zeal 
ous  for  the  orthodox  faith.  It  was  not  till  the  spring 
of  1815,  that  Dr.  Morse,  of  Charlestown,  obtained 
a  copy.  He  immediately  caused  that  chapter  that 
related  to  American  Unitarianism  to  be  published  in 
a  pamphlet.  It  gave  the  names  of  men  in  New  Eng 
land  who  were  known  as  Unitarians  in  Old  England. 
The  pamphlet  produced  a  great  excitement ;  conceal 
ment  was  no  longer  possible. 

The  Rev.  Alvan  Lamson,  in  his  History  of  Unita 
rianism,  in  Rupp's  History  of  Religious  Denomina 
tions,  says,  "  During  the  first  fifteen  years  of  the 
present  century,  controversy  was  seldom  or  never 
introduced  into  the  pulpit ;  but  Unitarianism  was 
making  silent  progress.  Many,  having  ceased  to  hear 
the  opposite  sentiments  inculcated,  embraced  it,  often 
without  any  distinct  consciousness  of  the  fact.  The 
term  Unitarianism  was  seldom  heard  in  New  Eng- 
30 


350  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

land  ;  those  since  so  called  were  denominated  liberal 
Christians" 

The  brief  History  of  American  Unitarianism  was 
reviewed  in  the  Panoplist  for  June,  1815.  The  war 
now  commenced ;  the  roar  of  the  artillery  began  to 
resound.  Dr.  Channing  replied,  in  July,  to  the 
review,  in  a  letter  of  thirty-six  pages,  addressed  to 
Rev.  S.  C.  Thacher.  During  the  same  month,  Dr. 
Worcester  replied  to  Channing  in  a  letter  of  the  same 
length.  These  were  followed  by  two  letters  from  each 
of  the  two  last  named,  before  the  close  of  the  year. 

In  1816,  a  long  review  of  the  whole  was  published 
in  the  Panoplist,  which  concluded  with  the  following 
remark  :  "  In  the  early  part  of  the  controversy,  there 
was  a  most  uncommon  exhibition  of  anger  and  in 
dignation  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  liberal 
party.  These  wrathful  passions  have  been  succeeded, 
in  many,  by  deep  and  pathetic  lamentations  over  the 
evils  of  controversy  and  separation." 

Prom  this  time,  the  orthodox  very  generally  re 
fused  to  exchange  with  those  who  belonged  to  the 
liberal  party,  and  very  soon  the  separation  was  com 
plete.  It  was  brought  about  with  very  little  com 
motion.  This  is  one  of  the  beauties  of  Congrega 
tionalism  ;  there  was  no  necessity  of  a  formal  trial  of 
_.gastors  or  churches  for  heresy.  Each  church,  being 
independent,  had  nothing  to  do  but  withhold  fellow 
ship,  and  the  work  was  done. 

The  late  John  Peirce,  D.  I).,  of  Brookline,  whose 
accuracy  in  statistics  is  well  known,  said,  in  a  letter 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  351 

written  in  1846,  that,  in  1812,  there  were,  in  Massa 
chusetts,  138  ministers  liberal  enough  to  be  Armin- 
ians,  and  179  orthodox,  and  that  in  May,  1846,  there 
were  124  liberal  enough  to  be  Arminians,  and  417 
denominating  themselves  orthodox. 

It  was  found  that  it  is  not  always  true  that  "  like 
people  like  priest."  Sometimes  the  pastor  and  a  mi 
nority  of  the  church  were  liberal,  while  the  majority 
was  orthodox  ;  sometimes  .  the  pastor  and  a  minority 
of  the  church  were  orthodox,  and  the  majority 
liberal.  The  separation  of  the  clergy  was  a  signal 
for  the  separation  of  pastors  from  churches,  and  for 
the  division  of  churches.  This  was  a  more  difficult 
and  serious  affair.  When  a  church  was  divided,  the 
question  was,  To  whom  jloes  the  house  belong,  and 
who  shall  have  the  funds?]  The  liberal  party  main 
tained  that  churches  were  unknown  in  law,  that  to 
the  society  with  a  minority  of  the  church  belonged 
all  the  property,  records,  &c.  In  most  cases,  the  or 
thodox  were  forced  to  remain  under  the  instruction 
of  liberal  preachers,  or  go  out  and  begin  anew.  The 
subject  was  brought  before  the  Supreme  Court  by 
the  church  in  Dedham,  and  decided,  in  March,  1821, 
agreeably  to  the  views  of  Unitarians.  The  judges 
declared  it  to  be  the  law  of  the  state,  that  the  property 
belongs  to  the  majority  of  the  society^  It  has  been 
decided  by  two  or  three  different  benches  of  judges 
in  the  same  way,  but  by  each  on  different  grounds. 
The  last  decision  was  in  1848.  In  regard  to  the  rights 
of  churches,  whether  they  are  known  or  recognized 


352  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

in  law,  an  able  discussion  may  be  found  in  the  Spirit 
of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  ii.  p.  370. 

In  May,  1819,  Dr.  Channing  preached  his  Balti 
more  sermon  at  the  ordination  of  Rev.  Jared  Sparks, 
in  which  he  so  set  forth  his  own  views  respecting 
the  Trinity  and  other  allied  doctrines,  or  rather  so 
misrepresented  the  views  of  the  orthodox,  that  it 
seemed  necessary  to  answer  it.  Rev.  Professor 
Stuart,  of  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  answered 
so  much  of  it  as  related  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trin 
ity,  in  a  pamphlet  of  two  hundred  pages.  It  was 
published  in  1819,  and  was  never  answered  by  Chan 
ning.  Professor  Norton  reviewed  it  in  an  article  in 
the  Christian  Disciple,  which  he  subsequently  en 
larged  to  a  volume,  and  published  under  the  title  of 
A  Statement  of  Reasons  for  not  believing  the  doc 
trine  of  Trinitarians  concerning  the  Nature  of  God 
and  the  Person  of  Christ. 

In  1820,  Rev.  L.  Woods,  D.  D.,  another  of  the 
Andover  professors,  published  a  volume  of  letters  of 
one  hundred  and  sixty  pages,  in  which  he  defended 
the  other  doctrines  of  the  orthodox  that  were  assailed 
in  the  Baltimore  sermon.  To  this  Dr.  Ware,  profes 
sor  in  the  Theological  School  at  Cambridge,  replied  ; 
and  in  1821,  Dr.  Woods  answered  the  reply.  A  dis 
cussion  was  carried  on  at  the  same  time  between  Mr. 
Sparks,  of  Baltimore,  and  Dr.  Miller,  of  Princeton. 

The  books  to  which  I  have  alluded  formed  the 
most  effective  part  of  the  controversy  ;  they  were  the 
most  thorough  and  critical.  A  vast  amount  of  ser- 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  353 

mons  and  short  articles  on  different  parts  of  the  sub 
ject  have  been  published  from  time  to  time. 

The  Unitarians  commenced  a  weekly  paper,  called 
the  Christian  Register,  in  1822.  In  1823  was  com 
menced  the  Christian  Examiner,  a  continuation  of 
the  Christian  Disciple,  commenced  in  1813. 

The  American  Unitarian  Association  was  organ 
ized  in  Boston,  in  1825.  It  includes  all  the  Unitarian 
clergymen  in  Massachusetts.  They  meet  annually 
in  Boston. 

In  1823,  there  was  a  correspondence  between  Pro 
fessor  Ware,  of  Cambridge,  and  Rev.  W.  Adam  and 
Rammohun  Roy,  a  native  of  India,  in  regard  to  the 
prospect  of  success,  if  the  association  should  com 
mence  a  mission  in  that  country.  In  1824,  this  cor 
respondence  was  published  in  a  pamphlet  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-eight  pages.  In  1825,  an  appeal 
to  Unitarians  to  engage  in  the  work  of  missions  was* 
published.  The  mission  was  never  commenced. 

A  sermon  was  preached  at  the  annual  fast  in  1828, 
by  Rev.  Parsons  Cook,  of  Ware,  now  Dr.  Cook,  of 
Lynn,  in  which  he  presented  facts  and  statements  to 
prove  that  Unitarianism  was  an  exclusive  system ;  that 
the  chief  offices  of  trust  and  profit  in  Massachu 
setts  were  held  by  that  denomination  ;  that  it  could 
not  be  entirely  accidental  that  governors,  councillors, 
judges,  &c.,  &c.,  should  belong  to  a  sect  which  was 
a  small  minority  of  the  population  of  the  state.  He 
avowed  his  belief  that  the  thing  was  brought  about 
"by  the  political  manoeuvring  of  liberal  men." 
30* 


354  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

A  reply  was  addressed  to  Mr.  Cook,  through  the 
Christian  Examiner,  understood  to  have  been  written 
by  a  distinguished  judge  of  the  Supreme  Court.  To 
this  Mr.  Cook  replied  in  1829,  in  a  pamphlet  of  thir 
ty-eight  pages,  in  which  he  brought  out  an  array  of 
facts  in  support  of  the  leading  idea  of  the  sermon. 
The  discussion  of  the  subject  at  the  time,  and  to  the 
extent  it  was  discussed,  had  a  salutary  effect.  There 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  reason  for  preferring 
such  a  charge  now  against  the  leading  men  of  that 
denomination. 

I  pass  over  many  facts  of  smaller  importance,  and 
speak  of  some  developments  made  by  a  sermon 
preached  by  Theodore  Parker,  at  South  Boston,  May 
19,  1841.  It  was  preached  at  an  ordination,  in  which 
he  and  several  other  Unitarian  clergymen  united  in 
the  solemn  service  of  investing  another  with  the  sa- 
'cred  office.  The  sentiments  advanced  in  the  sermon 
were  so  decidedly  anti-Christian,  that  it  was  supposed 
his  brethren  would  withhold  from  him  their  fellow 
ship,  and  by  so  doing  bear  testimony  against  the 
views  he  had  published.  No  action  was  taken  on 
the  subject,  and  nothing  was  done,  which  conveyed 
the  idea  to  the  public  that,  as  a  body,  they  could  not 
endorse  his  sentiments.  Individuals  expressed  them 
selves  with  more  or  less  decision  in  opposition  to 
Parker's  views.  Rev.  Mr.  Lothrop,  of  Brattle  Street 
Church,  said,  "  I  do  not  approve  of  some  of  the  sen 
timents  of  Mr.  Parker;  I  most  seriously  protest 
against  them;  they  seem  to  me  to  undermine  the 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  355 

very  foundation  of  all  Christian  faith,  and  to  be  at 
variance  with  Christian  truth."  But  he  said,  "No 
Unitarian  clergyman  feels  himself  responsible  for  his 
brethren."  "  We  recognize  no  creed,  covenant,  or 
union  of  any  kind,  that  interferes  with  individual 
liberty  and  independence."  This  matter  led  some 
Unitarians  to  feel  the  necessity  of  creeds,  and  to 
acknowledge  their  utility,  though  I  do  not  know  that 
any  of  their  churches  have  ever  adopted  any  thing 
like  a  creed. 

Since  then,  many  in  that  denomination  have  de 
plored  the  lack  of  fervor  and  zeal  in  their  chnrches  ; 
they  have  adopted  some  measures  for  the  purpose  of 
arousing  them  to  more  activity,  and  of  infusing  into 
them  more  spiritual  life. 

Some  think  there  is  a  portion  of  that  denomination 
that  are  advancing  slowly  towards  a  more  evangelical 
faith,  while  another  portion  is  receding  farther  from 
the  truth. 


SECTION  2.     New  Measures. 

ABOUT  the  year  1826,  this  term  began  to  be  used 
to  designate  certain  means  that  were  then  employed 
in  revivals  of  religion  for  arresting  the  attention  of 
the  sinner,  and  persuading  him  to  be  reconciled  to 
God.  They  consisted  chiefly  in  a  bolder  and  more 
denunciatory  style  of  preaching ;  in  praying  for  indi 
viduals  by  name  ;  in  reading,  at  the  commencement 
of  a  meeting,  notes  handed  to  the  preacher  by  indi- 


356  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

viduals,  requesting  prayers  for  an  impenitent  husband, 
wife,  child,  father,  brother,  or  sister  ;  in  inviting  those 
who  purposed  to  make  religion  their  chief  concern  to 
occupy  a  seat  by  themselves,  called  the  anxious  seat, 
and  in  securing  from  them  a  promise  that  they  would 
serve  the  Lord.  These  resolutions  were  regarded  by 
some  as  evidence  that  the  individual  so  resolving  had 
become  a  Christian.  In  many  cases,  persons  were 
admitted  to -the  church  very  soon  after  beginning  to 
cherish  a  hope  of  piety,  and  females  were  encouraged 
to  speak  and  pray  in  public  assemblies.  These,  in 
Presbyterian  and  Congregational  churches,  were  new 
measures. 

They  were  first  introduced  into  churches  in  West 
ern  New  York.  "  In  the  year  1826,  there  was  a 
very  great  religious  excitement  in  the  central  and 
western  parts  of  the  state  of  New  York,  occasioned 
principally  by  the  labors  of  the  Rev.  Charles  G.  Fin- 
ney,  an  evangelist  of  great  zeal  and  considerable 
native  eloquence.  He  had  been  a  lawyer,  and  hav 
ing,  as  he  hoped,  been  converted  to  Christ,  entered 
the  ministry  with  little  preparatory  study."  (Net- 
tletorfs  Mem.  p.  244.)  He  rebuked  not  only  the  im 
penitent,  but  professors  of  religion,  and  even  minis 
ters,  with  great  severity,  and  introduced  many  of  the 
measures  of  which  I  have  spoken.  In  every  congre 
gation  in  which  he  labored,  he  had,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  many  warm  friends  and  bitter  foes ;  those  of 
ardent  temperaments  being  among  the  former,  and 
the  more  cool  and  deliberate  among  the  latter.  Many 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  357 

young  preachers,  witnessing  the  results  of  his  labors, 
felt  that  a  new  era  had  commenced,  and  became  his 
imitators,  copying,  as  is  usual  in  such  cases,  more 
carefully  his  faults  than  his  excellences.  Some 
other  ministers  invited  him  to  their  churches,  and  bade 
him  God-speed.  There  was  another  class  of  clergy 
men,  cautious  and  careful,  who  looked  on  with  fear, 
lest  the  ark  of  God  should  be  endangered,  and  ven 
tured  to  speak  against  the  measures  that  were  becom 
ing  popular.  Mr.  Finney  vindicated  his  course  by 
saying  the  measures  he  introduced  were  substantially 
those  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Nettleton. 

The  Rev.  Asahel  Nettleton,  of  Connecticut,  began 
to  preach  in  1811.  It  was  his  purpose  to  have  been 
a  foreign  missionary,  and  to  have  gone  out  with  Hall 
and  others  who  went  to  India ;  but  his  preaching 
was  attended  with  such  signal  success,  that  he  was 
advised  and  persuaded  by  the  pastors  in  his  native 
state  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  work  of 
an  evangelist.  He  continued  to  do  so  until  1826, 
when  his  health  was  so  much  impaired  that  he  was 
obliged  to  desist  from  his  labors  almost  entirely.  He 
had,  it  is  true,  some  measures  peculiar  to  himself,  but 
was  remarkably  judicious  and  sound  in  doctrine,  and 
pastors  felt  their  relations  to  their  people  strengthened 
rather  than  weakened  by  his  labors  in  their  parishes. 
Mr.  Nettleton,  hearing  of  the  excitement  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  regarded  the  measures  employed  as 
detrimental  to  the  purity  of  revivals,  and  was  grieved 
to  learn  that  his  course  was  referred  to  in  justification 
nf  them. 


358  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  January,  1827,  Mr.  Nettleton  had  an  interview 
with  Mr.  Finney,  at  Albany,  and  heard  him  preach 
at  Troy,  but  was  convinced  that  it  would  be  impos 
sible  to  bring  Mr.  Finney  to  think  as  he  did,  or  to 
change  his  course.  He  therefore  wrote  a  long  letter 
to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Aikin,  then  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  Utica,  and  a  friend  of  Mr.  Finney,  in  which 
he  expressed  fully  his  own  views  and  feelings,  and 
what  he  knew  of  the  views  and  feelings  of  many  of 
the  best  men  in  New  England,  with  permission  to 
communicate  it  to  Mr.  Finney,  and  ministers  in  that 
region.  In  the  same  month,  Dr.  L.  Beecher  wrote  a 
long  letter  to  Dr.  Beman,  of  Troy,  giving  a  full  ex 
position  of  his  views,  for  the  purpose  of  correcting 
through  him,  if  possible,  some  of  the  measures  that 
were  becoming  popular. 

Soon  after  this,  Mr.  Finney  preached  a  sermon  at 
Utica,  and  afterwards  at  Troy,  which  was  published, 
from  Amos  iii.  3:  "How  can  two  walk  together,  ex 
cept  they  be  agreed  ?  "  The  principle  illustrated  and 
defended  was  this  —  If  the  subject  is  exhibited  in  a 
light  that  is  below  our  tone  of  feeling,  or  far  above 
it,  we  cannot  be  interested.  There  must  be  agree 
ment  of  feeling,  or  no  fellowship.  This  sermon  was 
reviewed-  by  Mr.  Nettleton  and  others,  who  showed 
that  a  Christian,  whose  standard  of  feeling  is  far  be 
low  that  of  Paul,  is  nevertheless  pleased  and  inter 
ested  with  his  views  and  exercises,  and  that  Paul  was 
interested  and  pleased  with  what  he  found  in  those 
who  were  only  babes  in  Christ.  The  principle  incul- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  359 

cated  in  the  sermon  was  manifestly  false.  It  was 
plain  to  all  who  read  the  sermon,  that  Mr.  Finney 
and  his  friends  had  nailed  the  flag  to  the  mast,  and 
that  no  reconciliation  could  be  effected,  except  by 
adopting  their  views  and  carrying  out  their  measures. 
The  abettors  and  advocates  of  the  new  measures 
were  supposed  to  look  upon  their  opposers  "as  cold 
and  dead,"  behind  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  hindering 
and  blocking  the  wheels  of  the  chariot  of  salvation. 

It  was  thought  that  something  must  be  done  to 
promote  union  and  agreement.  'Accordingly  a  con 
vention  of  clergymen  from  New  England  and  New 
York  met  at  New  Lebanon,  New  York,  July  18, 
1827,  and  continued  in  session  until  the  28th,  and 
discussed  the  whole  subject.  The  journal  of  that 
convention  was  published  in  all  the  religious  papers, 
and  in  the  Christian  Spectator  of  that  year,  p.  499. 
More  than  thirty  topics  were  discussed,  and  the  vote 
on  half  of  them  was  unanimous,  on  the  others  di 
vided,  Mr.  Finney  and  his  friends  voting  on  one  side, 
and  Mr.  Nettleton  and  his  friends  on  the  other.  The 
convention  consisted  of  eighteen,  and  a  part  of  the 
time  of  twenty  clergymen,  holding  prominent  places 
in  the  Congregational  and  Presbyterian  churches  ;  and 
though  it  failed  to  bring  about  an  agreement  in  re 
gard  to  principles  and  measures  in  conducting  and 
promoting  revivals  of  religion,  yet  it  served  to  en 
lighten  the  public  mind  in  relation  to  this  matter,  and 
to  let  them  see* what  measures  certain  individuals  jus 
tified,  and  certain  others  condemned. 


360  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  journal  of  this  convention  was  about  the  first 
thing  published  in  relation  to  measures,  except  what 
appeared  in  secular  papers  and  scattered  through  no 
tices  of  revivals  of  religion.  It  was  admitted  by  all 
that  there  were  evident  tokens  of  the  divine  presence 
and  power  in  the  churches ;  and  those  who  disap 
proved  of  the  measures  of  Mr.  Pinney  and  others 
were  reluctant  to  express  their  views  publicly,  lest 
they  should  be  thought  by  some  to  fight  against  God, 
and  by  others  to  condemn  all  religious  excitement. 

Towards  the  close  of  1827,  it  was  deemed  expe 
dient  to  publish  some  of  the  long  letters  that  had 
been  written  and  circulated  during  the  year.  Those 
of  Mr.  Nettleton,  of  Dr.  Beecher,  of  the  Rev.  Messrs. 
Aikin,  of  Utica,  and  Frost,  of  Whitesborough,  were 
published  in  the  New  York  Observer.  The  measures 
that  were  most  opposed  by  New  England  clergymen 
in  the  New  Lebanon  convention  were  nevel*  intro 
duced  into  New  England  churches,  neither  were 
those  evangelists  who  advocated  new  measures  in 
vited  to  preach  among  them,  except  in  a  few  places. 

On  May  27,  1828,  the  following  note  appeared  in 
several  of  the  religious  papers,  which  may  be  regard 
ed  as  the  end  of  the  new  measure  controversy :  — 

"  The  subscribers,  having  had  opportunity  for  free 
conversation  on  certain  subjects  pertaining  to  revivals 
of  religion,  concerning  which  we  have  differed,  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  general  interests  of  religion 
would  not  be  promoted  by  any  further  publications  on 


THE  HALF   CENTURY.  361 

those  subjects,  or  personal  discussions ;  and  we  do 
hereby  engage  to  cease  from  all  publications,  corre 
spondences,  and  conduct,  designed  or  calculated  to 
keep  those  subjects  before  the  public  mind ;  and  that 
so  far  as  our  influence  may  avail,  we  will  exert  it  to 
induce  our  friends  on  either  side  to  do  the  same. 
(Signed,)  L.  BEECHER,  D.  C.  LANSING, 

S.  C.  AIKIN,  A.  D.  EDDY, 

C.  G.  FINNEY,         S.  HOLMES, 
E.  CHEEVER,  J.  FROST, 

N.  S.  S.  BEEMAN,    N.  COE, 
E.  W.  GILBERT,      J.  PARKER." 

In  these  western  revivals  the  meetings  were  con 
tinued  several  days  in  succession,  usually  four  ;  and 
hence  they  came  to  be  technically  called  four-days' 
meetings  ;  and  at  a  later  period  they  were  continued 
a  greater  number  of  days,  and  were  called  protracted 
meetings. 

These  continuous  meetings  were  received  with 
more  favor  than  any  other  measures  then  in  use. 
Those  who  had  stood  strong  against  what  was  new 
said  protracted  meetings  were  not  new ;  that  the  pen- 
tecostal  season  was  a  meeting  of  this  kind,  and  they 
had  been  holden,  from  time  to  time,  among  all  de 
nominations.  "  It  has  long  been  a  practice,"  says 
Sprague,  "  in  some  parts  of  the  church,  and  has  re 
cently  become  common  in  this  country,  to  hold  a 
succession  of  religious  exercises  through  a  series  of 
days.  In  respect  to  this  measure,'though  I  am  aware 
31 


362  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

that  it  is  liable  to  great  abuse,  yet,  in  itself  consid 
ered,  I  confess  that  in  certain  circumstances,  and  with 
certain  limitations,  it  seems  to  me  unobjectionable. 
One  principal  reason  why  sinners  are  not  converted  is, 
that  the  impression  which  the  truth  makes  upon  them 
in  the  house  of  God  yields  almost  instantly  to  the 
cares  and  levities  of  the  world."  Such  meetings 
were  very  common  in  New  England,  and  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  between  the  years  1828  and  1835. 
They  began,  however,  to  be  abused,  and  relied  upon 
as  a  means  of  promoting  religion,  having  in  them  an 
intrinsic  power  and  efficacy.  Members  of  churches 
seemed  to  think  that  all  that  was  necessary  to  secure  a 
revival  of  religion  was  a  protracted  series  of  religious 
exercises ;  that  if  the  minister  would  only  "  set  the 
machinery  and  raise  the  steam  of  excitement,  con 
verts  would  be  made,  as  a  matter  of  course."  As 
this  feeling  seemed  to  abound,  the  success  of  these 
meetings  diminished,  and  in  many  cases  they  were, 
no  doubt,  hurtful.  They  destroyed  the  faith  of  God's 
people  in  the  ordinary  means  of  grace,  so  that,  after 
having  used  the  extraordinary  without  success,  they 
fell  back  into  a  state  of  discouragement,  or  became 
dissatisfied  with  their  minister  or  their  church,  and 
the  faith  of  not  a  few  became  unsettled. 

Since  about  1834,  protracted  meetings  have  met 
with  less  favor,  and  churches  have  been  gradually 
returning  to  the  old  paths,  and  relying  more  upon  the 
ordinary  means  of  grace. 

There  have  been  consequences  growing  out  of  this 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  363 

new-measure  excitement  and  controversy  of  a  serious 
character,  and  very  important  in  their  bearing  upon 
the  interests  of  religion. 

I  would  here  add,  that,  in  1832,  Rev.  W.  B. 
Sprague,  D.  D.,  published  his  Lectures  on  Revivals 
of  Religion,  with  an  Introductory  Essay  by  Leonard 
Woods,  D.  D.,  and  an  appendix  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty-five  pages,  made  up  of  twenty  letters  written 
by  distinguished  clergymen  of  different  denomina 
tions,  in  which  each  gave  an  exposition  of  his  own 
views  in  relation  to  measures,  and  an  outline  of  his 
own  experience. 

The  conclusion  of  the  matter  was,  that  "  the  ex 
istence,  progress,  and  happy  fruits  of  revivals  depend 
far  more  on  the  spirit  with  which  they  are  sought, 
than  on  the  particular  shape  and  form  of  the  meas 
ures  adopted." 

It  may  be  stated  here  as  a  remarkable  fact,  that 
is  full  of  instruction,  that  many  of  those  who  took 
the  lead  in  these  new  measures  soon  lost  their  stand 
ing  in  the  church,  and  many  pastors  their  influence 
among  their  people.  Mr.  Fkmey  "soon  adopted 
sentiments  incompatible  with  his  standing,  and  went 
out  upon  a  platform  of  his  own ;  "  one  of  his  most 
zealous  and  successful  imitators  has  sunk  into  obscu 
rity,  and  few  of  the  pastors  where  he  labored  would 
desire  a  repetition  of  similar  labors.  Two  of  those 
new-measure  evangelists  have  since  been  deposed 
and  excommunicated,  and  another,  being  excluded 
from  the  fellowship  of  his  presbytery,  has  labored, 


364  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

under  the  banner  of  union,  to  promote  disunion  and 
division  in  churches. 


SECTION  3.      The  Connecticut  Controversy. 

I  CALL  it  by  this  name,  because  it  began  in  Con 
necticut,  and  its  effects  were  more  apparent  there  than 
any  where  else.  The  subject  matter  of  it  was,  for  a 
time,  called  Taylorism^  because  the  controverted  doc 
trines  were  advocated  and  defended  by  Dr.  N.  Tay 
lor,  of  Yale  College. 

It  appears  that,  in  the  summer  of  1821,  while  the 
controversy  was  in  progress  between  Dr.  Wood,  of 
Andover,  and  Dr.  Ware,  of  Cambridge,  Dr.  Taylor 
said  that  "Dr.  Ware  had  the  better  of  the  argument" 
in  regard  to  original  sin.  Near  the  close  of  the  same 
year,  Professor  Goodrich,  in  a  public  lecture,  was 
understood  to  discard  the  common  views  of  New 
England  divines  respecting  original  sin.  The  ex 
pression  of  such  views  by  two  such  men  excited  a 
suspicion  in  the  minds  of  some  that  the  leading  men 
at  New  Haven  were  unsound  in  the  faith. 

In  July,  1826,  Professor  Pitch  published  two  ser 
mons  on  the  nature  of  sin.  His  doctrine  was,  "  that 
sin,  in  every  act  and  instance,  is  reducible  to  the  act 
of  a  moral  agent,  in  which  he  violates  a  known  rule 
of  duty."  He  denied  that  the  having  of  a  propen 
sity  or  bias  of  the  mind  to  evil,  so  strong  as  to  ren 
der  it  morally  certain  that  its  possessor  will  sin,  is 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  365 

itself  sin.  He  maintained  that  sin  consists  not  in 
any  preexisting  propensity  to  sin,  but  in  acting  ac 
cording  to  that  propensity;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
man  is  not  a  sinner  till  he  has  committed  an  outward 
act  of  transgression. 

These  sermons  were  sharply  reviewed  in  the  Chris 
tian  Advocate,  a  periodical  published  in  Philadelphia, 
in  the  numbers  for  March  and  April,  1827.  It  was 
supposed  to  have  been  written  by  Dr.  Green,  who 
believed  that  the  sin  of  Adam  is  imputed  to  his  pos 
terity,  and  that  the  having  of  a  propensity  to  evil  is 
sin.  He  maintained  that  the  infant,  previous  to  any 
actual  transgression,  is  a  sinner. 

In  1827,  Dr.  Fitch  replied  to  the  reviewer  in  a 
pamphlet  of  ninety-five  pages,  and  vindicated  the 
doctrine  taught  in  the  sermons. 

In  September,  1828,  Dr.  Taylor  preached  the  Con- 
]  do  ad   Clerum  at  the  commencement  at  Yale.     His 
i  subject  was  "  human  depravity,"  in  which  he  advo 
cated   substantially  the   same  views   of  sin  that  had 
been  presented  by  his  colleague,  Dr.  Fitch.     He  said, 
that  sin  does  not  consist  in  any  attribute  of  the  soul, 
nor  in  any  constitutional  propensity  of  our  nature, 
nor  in  the  imputed  guilt  of  Adam's  first  sin.  but  in 
man's  own   act,   in   his  free  choice  of  some   object 
rather  than   God  as  his  chief  good.     The  Spirit  of 
the   Pilgrims,  a  decidedly  orthodox  monthly  journal, 
(December,  1828,)  in  a  brief  notice  of  the   sermon, 
said,  "  We  have  here  an  able  and  satisfactory  discus 
sion  of  the   natural  and  entire   depravity  of  man." 
31* 


366  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

This  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  Dr.  L. 
Beecher.  The  suspicions  awakened  by  the  remark 
of  Dr.  Taylor,  in  1821,  were  remembered  and  strength 
ened  by  his  sermon  in  1828.  It  was  reviewed  by 
Dr.  Harvey,  ably  and  elaborately,  in  March,  1829. 
The  sentiments  of  Dr.  Taylor  were  pushed,  however, 
beyond  his  assertions,  to  inferential  results,  and  he 
was  made  responsible  for  what  he  did  not  say,  as  well 
as  for  what  he  did.  The  review  was  replied  to  in 
the  Christian  Spectator  by  Professor  Goodrich,  which 
was  substantially  the  lecture  to  which  I  have  already 
referred.  This  paper  called  forth,  immediately,  anoth 
er  pamphlet  from  Dr.  Harvey,  in  which  he  called 
upon  Dr.  Taylor  to  prove  that  he  was  in  no  sense 
chargeable  with  heresy. 

In  1829,  there  Avas  published,  in  the  Christian 
Spectator,  a  review  of.  Spring's  Essay  on  the  Means 
of  Regeneration,  which  was  understood  to  have  been 
written  by  Dr.  Taylor.  In  this  review,  Dr.  T.  took 
the  ground  that  "  antecedent  to  regeneration,  the 
selfish  principle  in  the  sinner's  heart  is  suspended,  and 
that  he  then  uses  the  means  of  regeneration  with 
motives  neither  sinful  nor  holy." 

This  article  on  regeneration  excited  more  alarm 
than  any  thing  that  had  been  said  in  'the  Concio  ad 
Clerum,  and  led  to  the  controversy  between  Drs. 
Tyler  and  Taylor. 

In  September,  1829,  during  the  anniversary  at 
Andover,  a  conference  was  had  between  some  of  the 
Yale  professors  and  several  clergymen  of  Connecticut 


THE    HALF  CENTURY.  367 

and  Massachusetts,  to  see  if  an  explanation  of  views 
would  not  produce  peace  and  harmony. 

In  December,  1829,  Dr.  Tyler,  then  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Portland,  published  his  Strictures  on  Dr. 
Taylor's  Review  of  Spring's  Essay.  He  declared  it 
to  be  his  belief  that  Dr.  T.  had  adopted  principles 
which  lead,  by  inevitable  consequence,  to  the  denial  of 
important  doctrines,  and  that  his  speculations  will  pave 
the  way  for  the  gradual  influx  of  error  upon  the  Amer 
ican  churches.  He  aimed,  in  his  Strictures,  to  show 
that,  previous  to  regeneration,  there  is  no  suspension 
of  the  selfish  principle,  and  no  time  in  which  the  sin 
ner  is  not  supremely  selfish.  These  Strictures  were 
regarded  by  those  who  did  not  sympathize  with  Dr. 
Taylor,  as  a  triumphant  refutation  of  his  theory  of 
regeneration,  which  was  thought  to  be  a  virtual  de 
nial  of  the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  renewal 
of  the  heart.  Dr.  Taylor  replied  through  the  Chris 
tian  Spectator,  in  March,  1830. 

In  a  note  in  the  Concio  ad  Cleruin,  Dr.  Taylor 
accounted  for  the  existence  of  sin  in  the  moral  sys 
tem,  by  supposing  it  impossible  for  God  to  prevent  it. 
In  1830,  Dr.  Woods,  of  Andover,  addressed  to  him  a 
series  of  letters  on  this  subject,  which  were  candid 
and  conclusive. 

In  the  early  part  of  1832,  Dr.  Hawes,  of  Hartford, 
thinking  the  difference  between  Dr.  Taylor  and  his 
opponents  consisted  more  in  the  mode  of  explaining 
their  views  of  truths,  than  in  any  real  difference 
of  opinion,  requested  Dr.  T.  to  furnish  him  with  "a 


368  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

frank  and  full  statement  of  his  religious  views."  In 
reply  to  this,  Dr.  T.  sent  him  his  creed,  with  notes 
appended,  which  was  published  in  the  Connecticut 
Observer,  February  20,  1832.  It  appeared,  after 
wards,  that,  by  the  advice  of  Dr.  H.,  some  assertions 
in  the  original  manuscript  were  omitted  in  the  one 
finally  published.  The  creed,  taken  by  itself,  with 
out  note  or  comment,  was  pronounced  satisfactory  ; 
but  the  explanations  were  such  that  the  letter  did 
nothing  towards  promoting  union. 

In  April,  Dr.  Tyler  reviewed  this  letter,  in  the 
Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,  in  which  he  pointed  out  the 
inconsistency  of  the  creed  with  the  notes,  particularly 
in  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  decrees,  election,  original 
sin,  and  regeneration.  In  August,  Dr.  Taylor  replied, 
through  the  same  periodical.  The  September  and 
October  numbers  contained  Dr.  Tyler's  answer,  and 
the  December  number,  Taylor's  reply,  which  was 
continued  in  the  January  and  February  numbers  of 
1833.  In  the  May  number,  Dr.  Tyler  answered  him, 
when  the  editors  refused  to  publish  any  thing  further 
on  either  side. 

Soon  after  this,  Dr.  Taylor  published  a  letter  in 
the  Christian  Spectator,  which  was  regarded  by  many 
as  an  extraordinary  production,  because  in  it  he  en 
deavored  to  show  that  he  and  Dr.  Tyler  were,  after 
all,  perfectly  agreed,  and  yet  he  had  charged  Dr.  Ty 
ler  with  adopting  a  theory  which  involved  the  idea 
that  "  sin  is  a  good  thing,"  that  "  God  is  the  responsi 
ble  author  of  sin/'  and  that  his  views,  carried  out  to 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  369 

their  legitimate  results,  lead  to  Universalism,  infideli 
ty,  and  atheism." 

Dr.  Tyler  published  a  pamphlet,  in  which  he  com 
mented  upon  this  letter,  which  ended  the  controversy 
between  these  two  individuals.  He  showed  that 
they  differed  on  nine  points  brought  to  view  in  the 
discussion. 

In  1832,  a  pamphlet  appeared,  without  the  names 
of  the  .author,  publisher,  or  printer,  entitled  Letters 
on  the  present  state  and  probable  results  of  theo 
logical  speculations  in  Connecticut,  by  an  Edwardean, 
since  ascertained  to  have  been  written  by  Dr.  Harvey. 
In  this  the  writer  asserted,  that  nothing  was  more 
certain,  than  that  there  would  be  a  separation  of  the 
Congregational  churches  of  Connecticut,  if  this  state 
of  things  continued  much  longer,  and  that  the  friends 
of  sound  doctrine  would  seek  other  seminaries  than 
Yale  for  the  education  of  their  sons. 

Dr.  Spring  published,  in  1833,  his  Essay  on  Native 
Depravity,  in  which  he  spoke  of  the  pamphlet  by  an 
Edwardean  as  "  written  with  clearness,  force,  and  a 
Christian  spirit."  About  the  same  time,  Dr.  Griffin 
published  a  volume  on  Divine  Efficiency,  by  which 
he  meant  "  the  effectual  power  of  God  immediately 
applied  to  the  heart  to  make  it  holy."  There  are 
two  theories,  he  says,  which  deny  this,  one  of  which 
is  advocated  by  Drs.  Taylor  and  Fitch. 

These  discussions,  though  they  did  not  result  in 
any  change  in  the  views  of  those  engaged  in  them, 
yet  led  many  to  investigate  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible 
more  thoroughly. 


370  THE    HALF  CENTURY. 

Ill  1833,  an  address  to  the  Congregational  churches 
of  Connecticut  was  printed  arid  circulated,  but  not 
published.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  by 
Dr.  Harvey.  The  object  of  the  pamphlet  was  to 
urge  a  division.  It  also  urged  the  importance  of  a 
new  theological  seminary. 

September  10,  1833,  a  convention  of  clergymen 
opposed  to  the  views  of  Dr.  Taylor  assembled  at 
East  Windsor.  After  two  days  of  prayerful  delib 
eration,  they  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  was 
expedient  to  establish  a  theological  seminary  in 
which  the  views  advocated  by  Dr.  Tyler  should  be 
taught.  They  organized  themselves  into  a  pastoral 
union,  adopted  a  constitution,  and  appointed  a  board 
of  trustees.  May  13,  1834,  the  corner  stone  of  a 
seminary  was  laid  at  East  Windsor,  and  Dr.  Tyler, 
on  the  same  day,  was  inducted  into  the  office  of 
president.  During  the  summer  of  1834,  a  manifesto 
was  published  by  the  professors  of  the  theological 
seminary  at  New  Haven.  In  October,  the  trustees  of 
the  new  seminary  published  an  appeal  to  the  public. 

The  pastoral  union  embraces  a  majority  of  the 
Congregational  clergymen  in  Connecticut,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  river,  and  a  small  minority  of  those 
on  the  west  side.  They  have  not  separated  from 
the  General  Association.  There  has  been  no  separa 
tion  of  churches.  The  new  seminary  is  under  the 
control  and  patronage  of  the  Pastoral  Union,  which 
meets  annually  during  the  week  of  the  anniversary 
of  the  seminary. 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  371 

There  was  quietness  in  the  churches  until  1839. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  General  Association  in  June 
of  that  year,  S.  H.  Cox,  D.  D.,  appeared  as  the  dele 
gate  of  the  new  school  assembly.  He  was  the  first 
delegate  from  that  body  to  Connecticut.  The  mem 
bers  of  the  Pastoral  Union  sympathized  with  the  old 
school  assembly,  and  opposed  the  receiving  of  Dr. 
Cox.  There  was  a  warm  and  animated  discussion 
of  the  matter.  Dr.  Cox  was  finally  received.  A 
report  of  this  meeting  was  published  in  a  New  Haven 
paper  by  Dr.  Bacon,  which  called  forth  a  reply  from 
a  Hartford  paper,  which  was  the  organ  of  the  Pas 
toral  Union.  At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Pastoral 
Union,  in  August,  a  new  edition  of  their  protest  was 
published,  accompanied  by  a  letter  from  Rev.  G.  A. 
Calhoun,  of  Coventry,  to  Dr.  Bacon. 

This  called  forth  a  series  of  letters  from  Dr.  Bacon 
to  Mr.  Calhoun,  to  which  he  replied,  in  1840,  in  a 
pamphlet  of  eighty-four  pages. 

Since  then,  there  has  been  quietness  among  the 
churches  in  Connecticut,  though  the  same  diversity 
of  doctrinal  views  continues  to  exist. 


SECTION  4.      The  Presbyterian  Church. 

THE  number  of  communicants  in  the  Presbyterian 
church,  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
I  do  not  know.  Their  published  documents  do  not 
show  the  number.  There  were  four  synods, — New 


372  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

York  and  New  Jersey,  Philadelphia,  Virginia,  and  the 
Carolinas,  —  including  twenty  presbyteries,  having  one 
hundred  and  fifty-two  ministers.  In  1807,  the  statis 
tics  were  more  complete  ;  there  were  then  330  min 
isters,  598  churches,  and  17,871  communicants. 
Their  collections  for  charitable  purposes  in  that  year 
were  $4,641. 

These  churches  were  made  up  in  part  of  the  de 
scendants  of  Scotch,  English,  and  Irish  Presbyteri 
ans,  with  whom  the  descendants  of  New  England 
Puritans,  as  they  emigrated  to  the  new  settlements, 
united.  Fifty  years  ago,  there  were  very  few 
churches  in  the  western  half  of  New  York,  in  Ohio, 
or  any  state  farther  west.  There  was  not  then,  and 
is  not  now,  any  essential  difference  in  the  doctrines 
of  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists.  They  dif 
fered  mainly  on  the  subject  of  church  government, 
which  difference  neither  party  was  disposed  to  regard 
as  a  wall  of  entire  separation. 

The  emigration  from  New  England  westward, 
fifty  years  ago,  was  considerable  ;  and  Presbyterians, 
finding  themselves  in  communities  where  was  a  large 
sprinkling  of  Congregationalists,  endeavored  to  fix 
upon  some  plan  of  union,  under  which  they  could 
labor  harmoniously,  and  still  preserve  to  each  their 
respective  privileges.  The  Puritan  emigrants  could 
not  easily  forget  that  "  the  Bible  is  the  only  infallible 
guide  in  matters  of  church  order  and  discipline." 

To  these  new  settlements  missionaries  were  early 
sent,  both  by  Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  373 

With  a  view  to  prevent  alienation,  and  to  promote 
harmony,  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  and  the  General  Association  of  Connecticut 
adopted,, iii  1801,  what  was  called  the  plan  of  union. 
It  was  agreed  that,  if  a  Congregational  church  should 
settle  a  Presbyterian  minister,  or  a  Presbyterian 
church  a  Congregational  minister,  each  church  should 
be  permitted  to  conduct  its  discipline  and  manage  its 
affairs  in  its  own  way.  If  there  was  any  difficulty 
between  a  church  and  its  minister,  it  should  be  re 
ferred  to  a  presbytery  or  council,  according  as  the 
minister  was  Presbyterian  or  Congregational.  The 
effect  of  the  plan  of  union  was  to  Presbyterianize 
Congregational  churches.  It  prevented  the  forma 
tion  of  a  general  Congregational  association  ;  their 
churches  were  reported  to  the  General  Assembly,  and 
not  to  any  Congregational  body. 

In  process  of  time,  there  began  to  be  considerable 
friction  in  the  working  of  this  system.  Congrega- 
tionalists  felt  that  their  system  was  thrown  into  the 
shade,  and  Presbyterians  felt  that  New  England  the 
ology  was  prevailing  more  rapidly  than  they  could 
wish. 

In  1826,  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society  was 
organized,  arid  controlled  the  action  of  state  societies. 
This  was,  and  still  continues  to  be,  a  voluntary  asso 
ciation,  subject  to  the  control  or  dictation  of  no  eccle 
siastical  tribunal.  To  the  funds  of  this  society  a 
majority  of  the  churches  connected  with  the  Pres 
byterian  Assembly  contributed,  and  preferred  to  do 
32 


374  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

so  rather  than  act  through  the  Assembly's  Board  of 
Missions. 

There  was  a  portion  of  the  Presbyterian  church, 
especially  those  that  were  not  of  New  England  ori 
gin,  who  were  opposed  to  voluntary  societies,  and 
thought  the  church  ought  to  control  all  such  matters, 
and  make  all  societies  amenable  to  the  church. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Assembly  in  1828,  a  resolu 
tion  was  offered,  signed  by  a  few  ministers  and  lay 
men  of  Philadelphia,  declaring  it  expedient  to  reor 
ganize  the  Board  of  Missions  acting  under  the  Gen 
eral  Assembly.  It  was  manifest  that  the  portion  of 
the  Assembly  who  were  not  descendants  of  the  Puri 
tans  were  jealous  of  Congregationalists,  strongly  op 
posed  to  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society, 
and  were  desirous  of  conducting  all  these  matters  in 
the  name  and  under  the  direction  of  the  church. 
If  the  Assembly,  at  that  time,  had  unitedly  abandoned 
all  voluntary  associations,  and  contributed  money  to 
be  expended  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of 
Missions,  it  is  presumed  the  Presbyterian  church 
would  never  have  been  divided.  The  resolution  was 
discussed  two  whole  days,  and  indefinitely  postponed. 
This  shows  that  the  majority  of  that  Assembly  was 
in  favor  of  voluntary  associations,  and  favorably  dis 
posed  towards  New  England  sentiments  and  modes 
of  operation. 

In  1829,  the  subject  was  called  up  again,  and  a 
vote  to  reorganize  the  Assembly's  Board  of  Missions 
was  passed,  and  also  the  following  resolution : 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  375 

"While  the  Assembly  would  solicit  the  cooperation 
of  the  churches  with  its  own  Board  of  Missions,  yet, 
as  many  of  our  churches  have  already  united  their 
efforts  with  the  American  Home  Missionary  Society 
and  the  American  Board,  therefore  resolved,  as  the 
sense  of  this  Assembly,  that  the  churches  should  be 
left  entirely  to  their  unbiased  and  deliberate  choice 
of  the  channel  through  which  their  charities  shall 
flow  forth  to  bless  the  perishing.7'  This  resolution 
was  a  sort  of  compromise  between  the  two  parties 
then  in  the  Assembly. 

The  same-  objections  were  urged  against  the  Amer 
ican  Education  Society. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Assembly  in  1831,  the  case 
of  Rev.  A.  Barnes  came  before  that  body  by  a  com 
plaint  of  the  majority  of  the  presbytery  of  Philadel 
phia  against  the  minority. 

It  appears  that  in  February,  1829,  Mr.  Barnes 
preached  a  sermon  to  his  church  and  congregation  in 
Morristown,  New  Jersey,  entitled  the  Way  of  Salva 
tion,  which  was  published  in  the  beginning  of  1830. 
There  were  individuals  in  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Philadelphia  who,  wishing  to  obtain  Mr. 
Barnes  for  a  pastor,  circulated  this  sermon  among  the 
electors.  This  was  a  signal  for  an  attack  upon  the 
sermon  by  those  who  preferred  that  he  should  not  be 
a  pastor  in  that  city.  It  was  severely  reviewed  by 
Rev.  W.  M.  Engles,  which  was  answered  by  Dr. 
Wilson,  of  that  city.  Several  answers  and  replies 
followed  in  quick  succession.  Notwithstanding  this 


376  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

show  of  opposition,  Mr.  Barnes  received  a  call,  was 
dismissed  from  his  charge  at  Morristown,  and  recom 
mended  by  his  presbytery  to  the  presbytery  of  Phil 
adelphia.  June  23,  he  presented  his  letter  to  the 
presbytery,  preparatory  to  his  installation  on  the  25th. 
There  was  a  strong  opposition  to  receiving  him,  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  not  sound  in  doctrine.  He 
was  received,  however,  by  a  vote  of  thirty  to  sixteen. 
Immediately  a  paper  was  presented,  containing  for 
mal  charges  of  his  unsoundness  in  the  faith,  and 
signed  by  A.  Green,  D.  D.,  and  Rev.  Messrs.  Engles, 
Potts,  Boyd,  Hoff,  Parker,  and  Williamson.  The 
charges  being  the  same  that  had  been  discussed  at 
length  in  presbytery  and  by  reviewers,  it  was  voted 
to  proceed  to  the  installation,  and  he  was  accordingly 
installed. 

In  October  following,  the  above-named  individuals 
complained  to  the  synod  against  the  presbytery  for 
irregular  proceedings.  The  synod  decided  that  the 
presbytery  had  given  cause  for  complaint,  and  re 
ferred  the  complainants  back  to  the  presbytery,  with 
an  injunction  that  the  presbytery  should  hear  and  de 
cide  on  the  objections  made  against  the  orthodoxy 
of  Mr.  Barnes.  In  November,  the  case  came  before 
the  presbytery,  at  which  meeting  only  a  part  of  the 
members  were  present.  The  complainants  and  their 
friends  were  the  majority ;  they  voted  that  the  com 
plainants  might  sit  as  judges.  Mr.  Barnes  was,  of 
course,  condemned  ;  but  time  was  given  him  for  reflec 
tion  and  recantation,  before  final  action  was  had. 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  377 

In  1831,  as  I  before  said,  the  presbytery  complained 
to  the  Assembly  of  the  irregular  proceedings  of  the 
minority.  The  Assembly,  having  investigated  the 
whole  subject,  heard  the  sermon,  and  the  objections 
made  to  it,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  "  it  contains 
a  number  of  unguarded  and  objectionable  passages ; 
yet  they  were  of  the  opinion  that,  after  the  explana 
tion  that  had  been  given  by  Mr.  Barnes,  the  pres 
bytery  ought  to  have  suffered  the  whole  to  pass  with 
out  further  notice  ;  and  that  they  ought  to  suspend 
all  further  proceeding  in  the  case." 

The  majority  of  that  assembly  sympathized  with 
Mr.  Barnes,  and  the  decision,  though  in  theory  final, 
was  by  no  means  satisfactory. 

Shortly  after,  there  appeared  in  the  Christian  Ad 
vocate,  published  in  Philadelphia,  a  series  of  articles 
on  the  present  state  of  the  Presbyterian  church, 
written  by  Dr.  Green,  in  which  he  asserted  that  the 
character  of  the  last  Assembly  was  determined  by 
the  labors  of  Dr.  Beman,  of  Troy,  who  had  spent 
the. previous  winter  at  the  south,  and  Dr.  A.  Peters, 
then  secretary  of  the  American  Home  Missionary 
Society,  who,  during  the  previous  year,  had  been  on 
a  tour  to  the  west.  He  accused  these  brethren  with 
having  taken  special  pains  to  procure  the  election  of 
members  to  the  Assembly  of  a  particular  stamp,  of 
men  who  were  favorable  to  New  England  theology 
and  voluntary  associations.  He  also  said,  "  The  pe 
culiar  ardor  of  excitement  now  prevalent  is  attributa 
ble  principally  to  a  special  cause,  which  ought  to  be 
32* 


378  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

distinctly  marked.  It  is  not  the  case  of  Mr.  Barnes. 
That  case  was  indeed  made  an  adjunct  and  auxiliary 
to  the  principal  cause  ;  but  the  cause  itself,  the  bane 
ful  apple  of  discord,  which  has  been  thrown  into  the 
midst  of  us,  is  the  inflexible  purpose  and  untiring 
effort  of  the  secretary  of  the  American  Home  Mis 
sionary  Society  (Dr.  Peters)  to  amalgamate  the  Board 
of  Missions  of  the  Assembly  with  that  society." 
No  man  knew  the  cause  of  the  difficulties  then  exist 
ing  better  than  Dr.  Green.  The  seat  of  the  war  was 
in  the  presbytery  to  which  he  belonged,  and  he  him 
self  was  the  leading  man  of  one  of  the  parties. 

The  Home  Missionary  Society  was  remarkably 
prosperous  from  the  beginning  ;  it  at  once  outstripped 
the  Assembly's  Board  of  Missions.  "  The  reasons," 
says  Dr.  Parker,  "are  obvious.  According  to  its  plan 
of  operations,  every  $162  secured  the  planting  of  a 
missionary  for  one  year  over  a  feeble  church.  Its 
funds  were  collected  by  soliciting  from  the  benevo 
lent  considerable  annual  donations  to  its  treasury. 
On  the  plan  of  the  Assembly,  every  missionary  cost 
$466.  Its  collections  were  mainly  in  small  sums. 
The  fifty  cent  plan,  or  a  cent  a  week,  was  greatly 
relied  on."  The  Home  Missionary  Society  extended 
its  influence  rapidly.  Here  was  the  germ  of  the  dif 
ficulty,  as  Dr.  Green  had  said. 

The  Home  Missionary  Society  was  as  much  under 
Congregational  as  Presbyterian  influence,  and  it  was 
feared  that  Congregationalism  might  invade  the 
bounds  of  Presbyterianisrn.  It  seems  to  have  been  a 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  379 

desire  to  counteract  the  influence  of  a  society  in 
which  New  England  Puritanism  formed  so  important 
an  element,  that  led  to  the  reorganization  of  the  As 
sembly's  Board.  The  charging  of  Mr.  Barnes  with 
heresy  was  therefore  only  "an  adjunct,"  designed, 
probably,  to  produce  an  impression  upon  the  public 
mind  that  this  class  of  ministers  embraced  funda 
mental  errors. 

The  General  Assembly  of  1832  voted  that  it  was 
expedient  to  divide  the  presbytery  of  Philadelphia  in 
such  a  way  as  will  be  calculated  to  promote  the  peace 
of  ministers  and  churches.  A  second  presbytery  was 
soon  after  formed  on  the  principle  of  elective  affinity, 
bringing  together  those  who  were  agreed  in  doctrines 
and  measures.  The  synod  refused  to  receive  said 
presbytery,  whereupon  its  members  appealed  to  the 
Assembly  of  1833,  which  directed  the  synod  to  re 
ceive  them. 

In  October  of  that  year,  the  synod  did  receive  the 
presbytery,  then  dissolved  it,  and,  having  united  it 
with  the  first,  proceeded  to  divide  the  presbytery 
geographically.  There  was  another  appeal  to  the 
Assembly  of  1834,  which  set  aside  the  doings  of  the 
synod,  and  reconstituted  the  second  presbytery,  as 
originally  organized,  on  the  principle  of  elective 
affinity. 

The  Assemblies  of  1833  and  1834  were  exceed 
ingly  stormy.  Irregularities  were  complained  of  in 
the  synods  of  Cincinnati  and  Western  Reserve ; 
many  were  suspected  of  heresy ;  committees  were 


380  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

appointed  on  the  state  of  the  church.  The  terms 
"  old  school  "  and  "  new  school  "  were  in  common 
use ;  it  was  manifest  that  there  were  two  parties, 
who  could  not  be  easily  reconciled  to  each  other. 
It  was  a  source  of  grief  to  the  good  people  of  Phila 
delphia  to  witness  the  annual  contentions  of  the 
Assembly  ;  they  were  desirous  it  should  meet  in  some 
other  place. 

Soon  after  the  adjournment  of  the  Assembly  of 
1834.  there  was  a  meeting  of  the  minority,  old 
school,  to  take  into  consideration  the  state  of  the 
church.  They  drew  up  what  was  called  the  Act 
and  Testimony,  and  sent  it  forth  to  the  churches. 
It  began  thus :  "  In  the  solemn  crisis  to  which  our 
church  has  arrived,  we  are  constrained  to  appeal  to 
you  in  relation  to  the  alarming  errors  which  have 
hitherto  been  connived  at,  and  have  now  at  length 
been  countenanced  and  sustained  by  the  acts  of  the 
supreme  judicatory  of  our  church."  The  document 
bore  strong  testimony  against  errors  in  doctrine,  in 
discipline,  and  in  church  order.  It  recommended  that 
a  convention  of  those  who  should  approve  of  the 
Act  and  Testimony  should  meet  at  Pittsburg  the 
next  year,  just  before  the  meeting  of  the  Assembly. 

The  convention  met  in  May,  1835,  and  adopted  a 
report  to  the  Assembly,  in  which  most  of  their  griev 
ances  were  embodied.  The  following  are  some  of 
them :  — 

The  Assembly  has  arrogated  to  itself  power  that 
belongs  to  the  presbyteries.  It  maintains  that  it  may 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  381 

condemn  a  book  or  printed  sermon  without  condemn 
ing  its  author.  It  has  sanctioned  the  gathering  of 
presbyteries  by  elective  affinity. 

It  is  a  grievance  that  a  missionary  society  operates 
among  our  churches,  and  is  patronized  by  them, 
which  is  in  no  sense  amenable  to  the  judicatories  of 
the  Presbyterian  church. 

The  plan  of  union,  referring  to  that  of  1801,  is  a 
grievance.  The  Assembly  does  riot  contend  for  pu 
rity  of  doctrine.  The  errors  in  doctrine,  which  were 
thought  to  be  alarmingly  prevalent,  were  these  :  — 

1.  A  denial  of  Adam's  federal  headship. 

2.  A  denial  of  original  sin. 

3.  A  denial  of  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin  to 
his  posterity. 

4.  A  denial  of  Christ's  federal  headship. 

5.  A  denial   of  the   imputation   of  Christ's   right 
eousness  to  believers. 

6.  A  rejection  of  the  vicarious  nature  of  the  atone 
ment. 

7.  It  is  assumed  by  many  that  man's  obligation  'is 
measured  by  his  present  ability. 

8.  A  denial  of  the  omnipotent  agency  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  regeneration. 

By  a  denial  of  these  doctrines,  nothing  more  is 
true  than  that  the  new  school  party  did  not  explain 
them  in  the  manner  they  were  explained  by  the  old 
school  party.  It  is  not  true  that  the  above  doctrines 
were  denied,  but  only  the  philosophy  by  which  the 
old  school  party  explained  them. 


382  THE  HALF  CENTUEY. 

The  new  school  party  had  the  majority  in  the  As 
sembly  of  1835,  as  they  had  had  for  several  years 
previous. 

In  March,  1835,  Dr.  Junkin,  president  of  Lafay 
ette  College,  addressed  a  letter  to  Rev.  A.  Barnes, 
notifying  him  of  his  purpose  to  prefer  charges  against 
him,  before  the  presbytery,  for  errors  of  doctrine  in 
his  Notes  on  Romans.  Dr.  Junkin  said,  "Most  con 
scientiously  do  I  believe  you  have  fallen  into  danger 
ous  error.  I  feel  that  your  doctrine  shakes  the 
foundation  of  my  personal  hopes  for  eternal  life.  If 
it  be  true,  then  I  cannot  read  my  title  clear  to  man 
sions  in  the  skies." 

Mr.  Barnes  was  tried  before  his  presbytery  in  July, 
and  acquitted.  Dr.  Junkin  appealed  to  the  synod, 
which  met  in  November,  by  which  the  decision  was 
reversed,  and  Mr.  Barnes  suspended  from  the  minis 
try.  By  the  same  synod,  the  second  presbytery  of 
Philadelphia  and  that  of  Wilmington  were  dissolved. 
Mr.  Barnes  signified  his  intention  to  appeal  to  the 
next  Assembly,  and  did  so ;  in  the  mean  time,  he 
submitted  to  the  decree  of  the  synod,  and  refrained 
from  preaching  until  the  Assembly  met. 

In  May,  1836,  the  Assembly  met  again  at  Pittsburg, 
when  Mr.  Barnes's  appeal  was  sustained,  and  he  was 
restored  to  his  ministerial  standing. 

Aroused  by  these  continual  defeats,  the  old  school 
party  determined  to  make  one  mighty  effort.  It  was 
a  case  of  life  and  death. 

The  Assembly  of  1837  was  to  meet  in  Philadel- 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  383 

phia.  Another  convention  of  the  old  school  mem 
bers  of  that  Assembly  convened  one  week  previous 
to  the  meeting  of  that  body,  to  fix  upon  a  plan  of 
procedure.  They  were  somewhat  divided,  but  finally 
fixed  upon  a  course^  which  they  pursued. 

When  the  Assembly  convened,  there  was  a  small 
majority  of  old  school  men.  They  first  abolished 
the  plan  of  union  of  1801,  and  declared  it  to  be  un 
constitutional.  Then  it  followed  that  the  synods 
and  presbyteries  organized  on  that  plan  were  uncon 
stitutional,  and  were  no  part  of  the  Presbyterian 
church.  The  synod  of  the  Western  Reserve,  of 
Utica,  Geneva,  and  Genesee,  were  exscinded.  This 
matter  was  warmly  debated  for  three  days,  before  the 
final  vote  was  taken.  A  resolution  was  also  passed, 
affirming  that  the  American  Home  Missionary  Soci 
ety  and  American  Education  Society  were  injurious 
to  the  peace  and  purity  of  the  Presbyterian  church, 
and  it  was  recommended  that  they  should  cease  to 
operate  in  any  of  the  churches  under  their  care. 
The  synods  of  Albany,  Cincinnati,  New  Jersey, 
Michigan,  and  Illinois,  were  requested  to  take  special 
notice  of  irregularities  and  errors  of  doctrine,  said  to 
exist  within  their  bounds,  and  report  to  the  next  As 
sembly.  The  second  presbytery  of  Philadelphia 
was  also  exscinded  by  that  Assembly.  The  plough 
share  of  division  was  driven  through  the  Assembly. 

These  synods  were  not  exscinded  for  any  error  in 
doctrine,  nor  for  any  violation  of  the  standards  of  the 
church,  for  then  it  would  have  been  necessary  to 


384  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

have  preferred  charges,  and  proved  them  guilty. 
Very  happily,  the  plan  of  union  was  discovered  to 
be  unconstitutional,  and  those  synods  which  had 
been  gathered  on  that  plan  were  not  constitutionally 
a  part  of  the  Presbyterian  church. 

August  17,  1837,  a  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  exscinded  churches  met  at  Auburn,  New  York, 
to  determine  what  course  they  should  pursue.  They 
decided  that  the  exscinding  acts  of  the  Assembly 
were  unconstitutional,  resolved  to  maintain  their 
organization,  and  send  commissioners  to  the  Assem 
bly  of  1838,  as  before.  They  did  so,  but  the  com 
missioners  were  rejected  by  the  moderator ;  they  ap 
pealed  from  his  decision  to  the  house,  which  sus 
tained  the  moderator.  They  then  withdrew,  and 
organized  themselves  as  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States.  Prom 
that  time  to  the  present  there  have  been  two  assem 
blies,  bearing  the  same  name,  each  claiming  that  the 
history  of  Presbyterianism  in  this  country,  prior  to 
1838,  is  its  history. 

The  trustees,  and  other  corporate  bodies  in  the 
Presbyterian  church,  held  much  valuable  property  for 
their  seminaries  and  for  missionary  purposes.  After 
the  separation,  the  question  arose,  To  which  body 
does  this  property  belong  ?  The  whole  of  the  prop 
erty  was  in  the  hands  of  a  board  of  trustees,  incor 
porated  by  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  one  third 
of  whom  were  elected  annually  by  the  Assembly. 
In  1838,  both  bodies  elected  their  trustees.  When 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  385 

the  board  met,  those  from  the  new  school  Assembly 
claimed  their  seat,  and,  on  being  refused,  commenced 
a  suit  in  the  courts  of  Pennsylvania.  They  gained 
their  cause  in  the  lower  court,  but  the  defendants  ap 
pealed  to  the  Supreme  Court.  The  judge,  after  hear 
ing  the  case,  on  account  of  some  informality,  ordered 
a  new  trial  ;  but,  in  doing  it,  he  expounded  the  law 
in  such  a  manner,  that  it  was  evident  his  decision 
would  be  against  the  new  school  party,  and  so  they 
withdrew  the  suit.  Each  party  claims  to  have  gained 
its  cause,  though  the  old  school  Assembly  holds  most 
of  the  funds. 

Soon  after  the  trial  of  Mr.  Barnes  for  heresy  had 
commenced,  Rev.  L.  Beecher, .  D.  D.,  president  of 
Lane  Seminary,  was  prosecuted  for  heresy  by  Dr. 
Wilson,  of  Cincinnati,  and  tried  before  the  synod. 
Rev.  Dr.  Duffield,  then  of  Carlisle,  was  also  tried  by 
the  body  to  which  he  belonged  for  heresy.  Both 
trials  were  failures,  though  they  called  forth  very 
interesting  discussions  of  several  points  of  doctrine. 

The  old  school  Assembly  has  the  advantage  of  the 
other,  which  seems  destined,  at  some  future  day,  to 
become  extinct.  Some  of  the  new  school  churches 
are  withdrawing  and  connecting  themselves  with  the 
old  school  Assembly,  and  others  are  connecting 
themselves  with  Congregational  bodies. 

In  1832,  six  years  before  the  final  separation,  there 
were  connected  with  the  General  Assembly  2,381 
churches,  1,730  ministers,  and  217,348  communi 
cants.  There  is  connected  with  the  new  school 
33 


386  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Assembly  now,  in  1850,  churches,  1,568 ;  ministers, 
1,473  ;  communicants,  139,797.  There  were  con 
nected  with  the  old  school  Assembly,  in  1849, 
churches,  2,459  ;  ministers,  1,803  ;  communicants, 
192,033. 


SECTION  5.      The  latest  Controversy. 

IN  April,  1847,  the  Massachusetts  Sabbath  School 
Society  published  a  small  volume  on  Christian  Nur 
ture,  by  Horace  Bushnel,  D.  D.,  of  Hartford,  the 
doctrine  of  which  was,  "  The  child  is  to  grow  up  a 
Christian."  He  should  be  so  trained  under  the  influ 
ence  of  parents,  that  he  shall  never  know  the  time 
when  he  became  a  new  creature  in  Christ.  This 
book  was  revised  and  published  under  the  sanction 
of  the  society's  committee,  consisting  of  seven  ortho 
dox  clergymen  of  Boston  and  vicinity.  It  was  there 
fore  presumed  to  be  sound  in  faith. 

In  June  of  that  year,  a  pamphlet  was  published, 
addressed  to  Dr.  Bushnel,  and  written  by  Dr. 
Tyler,  of  East  Windsor,  in  which  he  said,  if  he  un 
derstood  the  book  correctly,  it  contained  sentiments 
at  variance,  not  only  with  commonly-received  opin 
ions  on  that  subject,  but  with  the  Bible.  The  Sab 
bath  School  Society  immediately  suppressed  the 
book,  without  assigning  any  reasons  :  it  was  regarded 
as  a  remarkable  procedure.  The  book  furnished  the 
topic  for  many  newspaper  essays,  and  some  for  thet 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  387 

graver  quarterlies.  The  Unitarian  papers  commend 
ed  it,  and  some  Episcopalians  regarded  it  with  a 
little  favor. 

Dr.  Bushnel,  after  a  few  months,  put  with  it  some 
other  discourses  on  kindred  topics,  and  a  severe  letter, 
first  published  in  the  Religious  Herald,  commenting 
upon  Dr.  Tyler,  and  the  seminary  over  which  he 
presides,  and  made  a  volume  of  200  pages,  which  was 
sent  forth  to  the  world.  To  this  Dr.  Tyler  replied 
in  the  spring  of  1848,  in  a  pamphlet  of  80  pages. 
There  was,  for  a  time,  a  prospect  that  we  should 
have  a  protracted  discussion  of  the  whole  subject  of 
Christian  education.  Just  at  this  time,  another  sub 
ject  was  brought  forward  by  Dr.  Bushnel,  which,  on 
account  of  its  great  importance,  diverted  the  public 
attention  from  his  book  on  Christian  Nurture,  which 
since  then  has  lain  quietly  upon  the  shelf. 

In  1847,  Dr.  Bushnel  was  appointed  by  the  General 
Association  of  Connecticut,  to  preach  the  Concio  ad 
Clerum  at  the  commencement  at  Yale,  in  August, 
1848 :  the  subject  assigned  was,  the  Divinity  of 
Christ.  He  had  also  been  appointed  to  preach  the 
annual  sermon  in  September  of  that  year,  at  the  anni 
versary  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Andover. 
The  sympathy  of  the  Unitarians  with  the  views  ex 
pressed  in  his  book  on  Christian  Nurture,  procured  for 
him  an  invitation  to  preach  the  sermon  at  the  anniver 
sary  of  the  Theological  School  at  Cambridge  in  July. 
He  therefore  prepared  three  sermons,  related  to  each 
other,  on  the  atonement,  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and 


388  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

dogmas  in  theology,  which,  in  1849,  were  published 
in  a  volume  entitled  God  in  Christ,  to  which  was 
prefixed  an  Essay  on  Language,  of  100  pages. 

The  impression  was  very  general,  that  in  these 
discourses  Dr.  Bushnel  had  departed  from  the  faith  of 
the  orthodox  ;  and  the  way  was  prepared,  when  the 
book  appeared,  as  the  warriors  say,  to  give  it  a  warm 
reception.  No  book  has  been  published,  of  late  years, 
that  has  been  so  extensively  reviewed  as  Bushnel's 
God  in  Christ.  It  has  been  reviewed  by  Congrega- 
tionalists,  Presbyterians,  and  Baptists,  and  by  all  has 
been  regarded  as  containing  some  truths  blended  with 
much  that  is  false. 

Near  the  close  of  1849,  a  pamphlet  of  60  pages, 
entitled  Contributions  of  C.  C.,  or  Criticus  Critico- 
rurrij  appeared,  written  by  a  friend  or  friends  of  Dr. 
Bushnel,  and  designed  to  defend  him  against  the  at 
tacks  of  his  reviewers. 

The  association  to  which  he  belongs  appointed  a 
committee  of  five  to  examine  his  book,  and  report  to 
that  body  whether  it  contained  heresy  or  not.  The 
committee  could  not  agree.  Three  of  them  brought 
in  a  report  disapproving  of  some  things,  but,  on  the 
whole,  concluding  it  to  be  free  from  heresy  ;  the 
report  of  the  other  two  fixed  upon  two  or  three  points 
in  which,  in  their  opinion,  the  book  was  at  war  with 
the  Bible.  The  majority  report  was  adopted  by  the 
association. 

In  January,  1850,  the  Fairfield  West  Association 
took  the  subject  into  consideration,  and  appointed  a 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  389 

committee,  consisting  of  Messrs.  Hall,  Smith,  and 
Atwater,  to  examine  Dr.  Bushnel's  book,  and  report 
their  views  of  the  same  at  an  adjourned  meeting. 
At  the  next  meeting,  January  29,  Dr.  Hall  made  a 
report  in  the  form  of  a  remonstrance  and  complaint 
from  that  association  to  the  Hartford  Central,  of  which 
Dr.  Bushnel  is  a  member.  The  Hartford  associa 
tion,  in  reply,  said,  "  We  cannot  think  it  consistent 
with  the  established  rules  of  judicial  proceedings,  or 
with  justice  to  ourselves  or  Dr.  Bushnel  to  review  our 
decision,  or  institute  a  new  investigation  of  the  case, 
until  new  evidence  of  a  decisive  character  shall  be 
presented  to  us." 

The  Fan-field  Association  then  printed  their  re 
monstrance  and  complaint,  and  sent  it  to  the  several 
district  associations,  requesting  them  to  examine  and 
report  their  views  on  the  whole  subject.  Most  of 
them  did  so,  and  expressed  generally  their  dissatisfac 
tion  with  the  sentiments  understood  to  be  taught  in 
the  book. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  General  Association,  in  June, 
1850,  the  Fairfield  West  Association  presented  a 
memorial  to  that  body,  requesting  it  to  take  such 
action  in  relation  to  it  as  should  protect  itself  from 
any  imputation  of  heresy  which  might  rest  upon  it, 
from  the  fact  that  one  of  the  sermons  was  preached 
by  the  appointment  of  that  body.  If  they  remained 
silent,  it  might  be  supposed  that  the  association  sanc 
tioned  the  sentiments  taught  in  the  book. 

The  General  Association  took  occasion  to  reaffirm 
33* 


390  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

their  belief  in  that  system  of  doctrine  taught  in  the 
Catechism  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  by  so 
doing  declared  their  disbelief  of  whatever  there  may 
be  in  Dr.  Bushnel's  book  that  is  contrary  to  that  com- 
pend  of  Christian  doctrine. 


SECTION  6.       Subjects  of  Controversy  in  the  Prot 
estant  Episcopal  Church. 

IN  1833,  there  was  commenced  at  Oxford,  Eng 
land,  the  publication  of  a  series  of  papers  called 
Tracts  for  the  Times.  They  have  been  also  called 
the  Oxford  Tracts,  and  the  peculiar  sentiments  incul 
cated  in  them  have  been  called  the  Oxford  theology. 
Among  the  writers  of  these  tracts  were  Rev.  E.  B. 
Pusey,  D.  D.,  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  Rev. 
J.  H.  Newman,  fellow  of  Oriel  College,  and  Professor 
Keble.  The  professed  object  of  the  tracts  was  to 
call  attention  to  the  primitive  church,  to  its  doc 
trines  and  usages.  The  writers  were  not  satisfied 
with  going  back  to  the  reformation ;  they  found 
much  that  they  approved  and  commended  prior  to 
the  reformation.  They  were  apparently  delighted 
with  things  that  were  when  the  pope  reigned  supreme 
over  all  Europe,  and  was  acknowledged  by  all  as  the 
spiritual  head.  Many  of  the  Episcopal  clergy  and 
laity  favored  these  tracts.  The  Bishop  of  Chester, 
in  his  charge  to  the  clergy  of  his  diocese,  warned 
them  of  approaching  dangers,  "  of  a  revival  of  the 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  391 

worst  evils  of  the  Romish  system."  The  Bishop  of 
Oxford  approved  of  the  tracts,  and  defended  the 
writers  of  them. 

The  writers  of  these  tracts  maintained  the  doctrine 
of  unbroken  apostolical  succession,  of  tradition,  of 
the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  of  prayers  for  the 
dead.  The  tract  No.  90  came  out  more  distinctly 
than  any  that  preceded  it  in  favor  of  Romanism.  In 
1843,  Dr.  Pusey  preached  a  sermon,  in  which  he  dis 
tinctly  maintained  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  chancellor  took  from 
him  the  privilege  of  preaching  in  the  university  for 
the  space  of  two  years. 

Since  then,  47  members  of  the  university  at  Oxford, 
with  Mr.  Newman  at  their  head,  have  conformed  to 
the  church  of  Rome.  Mr.  Newmaji  speaks  of  having 
succeeded  in  turning  78  persons  from  Protestantism 
to  Popery.  Pius  IX.,  as  a  token  of  his  regard  for 
the  valuable  services  rendered  by  Mr.  Newman,  has 
conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  D.  D.  Dr.  Pusey 
still  remains  in  the  church  of  England,  but  is  known 
to  be  a  Romanist  at  heart.  Through  the  influence 
of  Pusey,  Newman,  and  Keble,  hundreds  have  gone 
back  to  the  dark  ages,  and  acknowledge  the  pope  as 
their  spiritual  head. 

In  1840,  the  Tracts  for  the  Times  were  repnblished 
in  this  country,  and  strong  tendencies  towards  Ro 
manism  began  to  be  apparent  in  portions  of  the 
American  Episcopal  church. 

In  July,  1843,  at  the  examination  of  the  students 


392  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

of  the  Episcopal  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York, 
the  Rev.  Drs.  Smith  and  Anthon,  having  learned, 
from  personal  conversation,  that  one  of  the  students, 
Mr.  Arthur  Carey,  had  become  substantially  a  Ro 
manist,  requested  that  the  committee  should  pay 
particular  attention  to  the  views  that  might  be  ex 
pressed  by  the  senior  class,  and  especially  on  all  sub 
jects  in  which  the  Protestant  and  Papal  tenets  conflict 
with  each  other.  A  motion  was  made  that  a  com 
mittee  be  appointed  to  examine  the  sermons  the 
senior  class  had  written  during  their  last  year.  The 
motion  was  negatived.  On  the  ensuing  Sabbath,  the 
young  men  were  to  be  ordained  as  deacons.  When 
the  bishop,  according  to  usage,  called  upon  the  peo 
ple  to  declare  if  there  was  any  reason  why  any  of  the 
young  men  should  not  receive  orders,  Drs.  Smith  and 
Anthon  protested  against  the  ordination  of  Carey. 
The  bishop  said  he  had  examined  the  case,  arid  was 
satisfied,  and  so  were  all  except  the  protesters,  and 
proceeded  to  ordain  them.  Drs.  Smith  and  Anthon 
left  the  house. 

Against  this  act  of  Bishop  Onderdonk  a  solemn 
voice  of  remonstrance  went  forth  over  the  land;  and 
as  the  meeting  of  the  General  Convention  was  near 
at  hand,  it  was  expected  that  the  question  of  Oxford- 
ism  would  be  the  principal  point  to  be  discussed,  and 
that  the  decision  of  the  convention  would  determine 
the  policy  of  the  church  on  that  subject. 

All  the  low  church  portion  of  that  denomination, 
and  many  of  the*  high  church,  had  expressed  them- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  393, 

selves  strongly  against  the  Oxford  theology.  Bishop 
Me II value  had  written  a  book  of  550  pages,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  preventing  the  spread  of  those 
views.  The  election  of  delegates  was  understood  to 
turn  principally  on  that  point,  and  it  was  supposed 
that  the  utmost  strength  of  the  parties  would  be 
called  out.  The  convention  met,  and  the  subject 
was  introduced.  Never  was  there  a  better  opportu 
nity  for  those  who  were  disposed  to  contend  earnestly 
for  the  faith,  to  show  the  spirit  of  martyrs,  than  was 
afforded  on  that  occasion.  It  was  expected  that  the 
anti-tractarians  would  take  a  firm  stand,  and  if  the 
vote  of  the  convention  went  against  them,  that  they 
would  separate  themselves  from  the  body,  and  organ 
ize  an  Evangelical  Convention. 

The  test  vote  on  the  question,  after  a  warm  and 
earnest  debate,  was,  92  to  let  the  evil  alone,  and  55  in 
favor  of  taking  some  measures  to  remove  it.  Here 
the  agitated  question  was  suffered  to  rest ;  the  minor 
ity  submitted  to  the  majority.  It  seemed  to  those 
who  were  looking  on  and  waiting  for  the  result,  that 
all  regarded  the  unity  of  the  church  to  be  more  im 
portant  than  its  purity  of  doctrine. 


394  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER  X. 

NEW  RELIGIOUS  SECTS. 


SECTION  1.     Mormons  t  or  Latter-Day  Saints. 

THE  founder  of  this  sect  was  Joseph  Smith,  who 
was  born  in  Sharon,  Vermont,  December  23,  1805. 
In  1815,  he  removed,  with  his  father,  to  Palmyra, 
New  York,  and  in  1819  to  Manchester. 

His  education  was  very  limited  ;  some  say  he  could 
not  read.  He  says  that,  soon  after  removing  to  Man 
chester,  his  mind  was  exercised  on  the  subject  of 
religion,  but,  seeing  there  was  such  a  diversity  of 
sects,  he  knew  not  what  to  do.  He  betook  himself 
to  prayer,  confiding  in  the  promise,  "If  any  man  lack 
wisdom,  let  him  ask  of  God,  who  giveth  to  all  men 
liberally  and  upbraideth  not,  and  it  shall  be  given 
him."  While  praying  earnestly,  a  great  light  shone 
around  him,  and  two  angels  came  and  told  him  that 
all  existing  denominations  were  in  error,  and  that  the 
fulness  of  the  gospel  should  in  a  short  time  be  made 
known  to  him. 

In  the  evening  of  the  21st  of  September,  1823, 
while  praying,  the  room  was  filled  with  light,  and  a 
glorious  personage  appeared  before  him,  a  messenger 
from  heaven,  and  informed  him  that  the  time  for  the 
gospel  to  be  preached  in  its  fulness  and  power  had 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  395 

come  ;  that  the  millennial  reign  of  Christ  was  to  com 
mence  ;  and  that  he  was  a  chosen  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  God  to  usher  in  this  glorious  dispensation. 
He  was  told  who  were  the  original  inhabitants  of 
this  country,  and  from  whence  they  came,  and  that 
there  was  a  bundle  of  metallic  plates  deposited  in  a 
certain  place,  containing  an  account  of  the  aboriginal 
inhabitants,  which  was  a  part  of  the  Bible  that  was 
lost. 

These  plates,  he  said,  were  subsequently  put  into 
his  hands,  together  with  a  breastplate  and  the  Urim 
and  Thummim,  which  consisted  of  two  transparent 
stones,  set  in  the  rim  of  a  bow,  fastened  to  a  breast 
plate.  By  looking  through  these  stones,  he  could  see 
the  strange  characters  on  the  plates  translated  into 
plain  English. 

This  is  taken  from  a  sober  history  of  this  matter, 
written  by  the  dictation  of  Smith  himself.  He  pre 
sumes  to  say  that  all  Christian  sects  were  wrong,  and 
that  the  Lord  raised  him  up  to  teach  the  true  religion, 
and  to  reveal  through  him  things  that  had  been  con 
cealed  from  all  others. 

The  origin  of  the  Mormon  Bible  was  in  truth  as 
follows :  — 

Rev.  Solomon  Spaulding,  a  graduate  of  Dartmouth 
College,  was  settled  in  the  ministry  at  New  Salem,  in 
Ashtabula  county,  Ohio,  previous  to  1810.  His 
health  failed,  and  he  was  laid  aside  from  his  pastoral 
labors.  In  that  neighborhood  there  are  many  mounds 
and  ancient  fortifications;  and  being  interested  in 


396  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

historical  antiquities,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  writing 
an  account  of  the  origin  of  these  mounds :  he  gave  it 
the  form  of  a  translation  of  a  lost  manuscript,  pur 
porting  to  have  been  found  in  these  mounds,  and  to 
have  been  written  by  one  of  the  ancient  race,  who 
lived  at  the  time  these  ancient  works  were  construct 
ed.  It  was  written  about  1812.  He  afterwards  re 
moved  to  Pittsburg,  where  he  died  in  1816.  A 
printer  in  that  city  read  the  manuscript,  and 
proposed  to  publish  it ;  to  which  Mr.  Spaulding  ob 
jected.  It  remained  in  the  printing  office  a  consider 
able  time,  in  which  Sidney  Rigdon,  who,  from  the 
beginning,  has  held  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  Mor 
mon  church,  was  a  workman.  The  Mormon  Bible 
appeared  about  1827,  and  is  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  the  book  written  by  Mr.  Spaulding.  His  wife, 
a  respectable  woman,  afterwards  married  a  Mr.  David 
son,  and  in  1839  was  living  in  Monson,  Massachu 
setts.  She  has  testified,  under  oath,  that  the  Mormon 
Bible  is  the  book  her  husband  wrote  for  his  own 
amusement,  and  that  of  his  neighbors,  in  1812. 
There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  her  testimony,  and  Sid 
ney  Rigdon  and  Joseph  Smith  knew  perfectly  well 
that  the  account  they  gave  of  the  origin  of  that  book 
was  entirely  false.  And  yet  they  had  the  presump 
tion  to  set  about  the  establishment  of  a  new  religious 
sect,  founded  on  a  known  falsehood. 

The  first  Mormon  church  was  organized  at  Man 
chester,  New  York,  April  6,  1830.  A  few  individu 
als  were  ordained,  who  professed  to  have  the  power 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  397 

of  healing  diseases,  of  casting  out  devils,  of  impart 
ing  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  of  speaking  in  unknown 
tongues.  Strange  to  tell,  they  had  many  followers. 
Churches  were  multiplied  in  several  states  of  the 
Union,  and  in  England.  The  main  body  of  them 
removed  to  Kirtland,  Ohio,  with  the  intention  of 
building  a  city  and  a  temple.  They  were  there  in 
1S36,  and  finished  a  temple,  which  is  still  standing. 
There  were  great  numbers  of  them  in  Missouri,  to 
which  place  they  emigrated  from  Kirtland  and  other 
places,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  themselves 
there  permanently,  and  of  making  that  their  Jerusa 
lem.  Here  they  met  with  great  opposition  :  violence 
was  threatened,  if  they  did  not  leave  the  state.  The 
governor  of  Missouri  issued  an  exterminating  order 
in  1838,  and  they  were  obliged  to  flee  for  their 
lives. 

In  1839,  they  removed  to  Illinois,  and  began  the 
city  of  Nauvoo,  on  the  bank  of  the  Mississippi.  Here, 
at  one  time,  were  1,500  houses  and  15,000  inhabitants. 
A  temple  was  erected,  120  feet  by  80. 

These  latter-day  saints  were  regarded  as  a  nuisance 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  country.  They 
were  charged  with  committing  depredations  upon  the 
property  of  the  people  in  adjacent  towns,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  church  with  screening  them  from  pun 
ishment. 

A  Presbyterian  clergyman,  who  resided  in  the 
vicinity  of  Nauvoo,  in  1843  gave  the  following 
account  of  them :  "  Here  are  15,000  souls  deluded 
34 


398  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

and  under  the  absolute  dominion  of  Joe  Smith.  He 
literally  leads  them  whithersoever  he  will.  They 
have  unlimited  belief  in  his  prophecies ;  and  no  wick 
edness,  however  vile,  no  swindling,  however  great, 
no  blackguardism,  however  low,  no  hypocrisy,  how 
ever  errant,  and  no  prophecy,  however  absurd  and 
preposterous,  can  break  the  force  of  their  belief  in 
him,  or  dissipate  the  dreadful  delusion  that  covers 
their  minds.  I  recently  heard  with  my  own  ears 
these  heartless  leaders  tell  their  followers  that  they 
had  a  revelation  from  the  Lord  to  tell  them  how  they 
should  vote.  They  one  and  all  believed  it,  and  voted 
in  obedience  to  the  pretended  revelation." 

Nauvoo  became  an  incorporated  city,  held  the  bal 
ance  of  political  power  in  the  county,  and  had  great 
influence  in  the  state  elections  ;  they  had  a  munici 
pal  court,  and  a  large  body  of  armed  men.  It  was 
believed  the  Mormons  committed  depredations  upon 
property  in  the  region  ;  bat  the  Nauvoo  courts  cleared 
the  accused.  The  people  in  that  part  of  Illinois  be 
came  greatly  excited,  and  determined  to  obtain  satis 
faction,  or  drive  them  from  the  state.  The  governor 
finally  called  out  the  militia  of  the  state  to  suppress 
the  insurrectionary  spirit.  On  the  24th  of  June, 
1844,  Smith  surrendered  the  arms  he  had  obtained 
of  the  state,  on  being  commanded  to  do  so  by  the 
governor,  and  gave  himself  up  a  prisoner,  with  his 
council.  Smith  was  arrested  on  the  charge  of  treason, 
and  others  for  other  crimes,  and  imprisoned  at  Car 
thage.  The  jail  was  guarded  by  sixty  soldiers.  The 


THE  HALF  CENTUEY.  399 

next  day,  all  the  guard  being  absent  except  eight,  a 
mob  rushed  upon  the  jail,  broke  in,  and  commenced 
firing  upon  the  prisoners ;  Smith,  in  attempting  to 
escape  through  a  window,  received  one  hundred 
balls,  and  fell  down  dead.  His  brother  Hiram  shared 
the  same  fate. 

Quiet  was  not  restored.  The  Mormons  organized, 
and  went  on  with  their  work  for  a  time  j  but  the  peo 
ple  were  annoyed  by  them,  or  in  fear  of  being  an 
noyed,  and  made  assaults  upon  the  city,  burned  their 
houses,  and  frightened  many  of  them  from  the 
ground.  The  Mormons  continued  to  commit  out 
rages  upon  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  coun 
try.  Several  individuals  were  waylaid  and  shot. 
None  felt  safe.  The  people  determined  they  should 
leave,  or  be  massacred.  In  the  autumn  of  1845, 
they  promised  to  leave  in  the  spring.  Accordingly, 
in  the  spring  of  1846,  they  all  left  the  city,  some  re 
turning  to  the  places  from  whence  they  came,  but 
most  of  them  commenced  a  march  across  the  country 
to  Upper  California,  and  are  located  at  Salt  Lake, 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They,  in  connection 
with  others,  took  the  preliminary  steps  for  becoming 
one  of  the  United  States.  They  adopted  a  constitu 
tion,  and  petitioned  Congress  for  admission  into  the 
Union.  September  9,  1850,  Congress  established 
over  them  a  territorial  government,  which  is  called 
Utah. 


400  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

SECTION  2.     Millerism,  or  Second  Adventism. 

WILLIAM  MILLER  was  born  in  Pittsfield,  Massachu 
setts,  February  15,  1782 ;  he  removed  with  his 
father,  while  young,  to  Hampton,  Washington  Coun 
ty,  New  York,  and  was  an  avowed  Deist  till  1816, 
when  he  became  hopefully  pious,  and  united  with 
the  Baptist  church.  He  had  only  a  common  school 
education,  but  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinary  tal 
ent.  He  had  read  much  history,  and,  after  his  con 
version,  turned  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the 
prophecies  in  connection  with  history. 

He  embraced  peculiar  views  respecting  the  second 
advent  of  the  Savior,  and  fixed  in  his  own  mind  the 
time  when  it  would  take  place.  His  views  were, 
substantially  the  following :  that  Jesus  Christ  will 
appear  a  second  time  in  1843,  in  the  clouds  of  heav 
en  ;  that  he  would  then  raise  the  righteous  dead,  and 
judge  them  together  with  the  righteous  living,  who 
would  be  caught  up  to  meet  him  in  the  air;  that  he 
would  purify  the  earth  with  fire,  causing  the  wicked 
and  all  their  works  to  be  consumed  in  the  general 
conflagration,  and  would  shut  up  their  souls  in  the 
place  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels  ;  that  the 
saints  would  live  and  reign  with  Christ  on  the  new 
earth  1000  years;  that  then  Satan  and  the  wicked 
spirits  would  be  let  loose,  and  the  wicked  dead  be 
raised,  which  he  called  the  second  resurrection,  and, 
being  judged,  should  make  war  upon  the  saints,  be 
defeated,  and  cast  down  to  hell  forever. 


THE   HALF  CENTUltY.  401 

The  following  sketch  of  the  progress  of  Millerism 
in  this  country  is  from  a  recent  number  of  the 
Advent  Herald.  Miller  died  December  20,  1849, 
aged  68. 

"In  this  country,  the  first  laborer  in  the  cause  was 
William  Miller,  who  discovered  his  principles  in  1818, 
but  did  not  commence  their  promulgation  till  1831, 
when  he  wrote  a  series  of  articles  in  the  Vermont 
Telegraph.  In  1832,  he  sent  forth  a  synopsis  of  his 
views  in  a  pamphlet,  and  soon  after,  in  obedience  to 
conscientious  convictions  of  duty,  he  commenced 
public  lecturing  about  the  country.  In  1836,  a  vol 
ume  of  his  lectures  was  published  and  widely  circu 
lated.  Early  in  1838,  a  copy  of  these  lectures  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Rev.  J.  Litch,  a  minister  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  who  soon  after  pub 
lished,  at  Lowell,  a  pamphlet  entitled  the  Midnight 
Cry,  proclaiming  '  the  second  coming  of  Christ  about 
A.  D.  1843.'  He  also  commenced  preaching  the 
same  doctrine.  He  also  published  other  works.  In 
1839,  Mr.  Miller  visited  Massachusetts,  and  lectured 
at  Lowell  and  other  principal  towns.  At  Exeter,  he 
became  acquainted  with  Rev.  J.  V.  Himes,  of  the 
Christian  Connection,  Boston,  a  receiver  of  the  doc 
trine,  and  on  his  invitation  came  to  Boston,  where  so 
much  interest  was  awakened  that  Marlborough  Chap 
el  was  hired  for  his  lectures.  Here  he  published  a 
revised  edition  of  his  lectures,  of  which  Mussey  sold 
5000  copies,  and  then  the  publication  was  undertaken 
by  Mr.  Himes.  Mr.  Himes  commenced  the  publication 
34* 


402  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

of  a  newspaper,  March  20,  1840,  called  Signs  of 
the  Times,  issuing  semi-monthly,  and  circulating  all 
over  the  country.  Rev.  Charles  Fitch,  pastor  of  the 
church  worshipping  in  Marlborough  Chapel,  now  de 
voted  himself  to  the  work  of  lecturing.  In  October, 
~\j  1840,  the  first  General  Conference  of  Second  Advent 
believers  was  held  in  Chardon  Street  Chapel,  Boston. 
During  the  winter  of  1841-1842,  conferences  were 
numerous  throughout  New  England ;  and,  in  the 
spring  of  1842,  the  standard  was  raised  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  by  a  series  of  meetings  in  Apollo  Hall, 
Broadway,  held  by  Messrs.  Miller  and  Himes.  Dur 
ing  the  summer  of  that  year,  camp-meetings  were 
held  in  various  places  ;  and,  finally,  a  large  tent  was 
procured,  capable  of  holding  4000  persons,  in  which 
meetings  were  held  at  Concord,  Albany,  Springfield, 
Salem,  Newark,  &c.  Public  excitement  greatly  in 
creased,  arid  multitudes  of  laborers  now  entered  the 
field.  During  this  season,  Mr.  Fitch  extended  his 
circuit  into  Ohio,  and  contributed  to  spread  the  doc 
trine  in  the  west." 

The  preachers  of  these  sentiments  connected  with 
their  meetings  certain  revival  measures,  and  made  use 
of  the  asserted  fact,  that  the  world  was  near  its  end, 
as  a  reason  why  sinners  should  immediately  repent. 
Meetings  were  continued  sometimes  for  a  series  of 
days,  and  numerous  conversions  were  reported.  The 
serious  application  that  was  made  of  the  doctrine,  and 
the  practical  duties  derived  from  it,  influenced  many 
minds  more  than  the  arguments  urged  in  support  of 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  403 

it.  Some  good  people  said,  "  The  Lord  is  evidently 
with  them,  and  blesses  their  labors  ;  and  therefore  the 
doctrines  they  teach  must  be  true."  Many  little 
books  and  tracts  were  published  and  scattered  as  pro 
fusely  as  autumn  leaves,  and,  to  most  minds,  about  as 
void  of  nutriment.  As  the  supposed  end  of  the  world 
drew  near,  the  excitement  was  intense.  Some  neg 
lected  their  business ;  they  had  property  enough  to 
support  them  till  the  final  conflagration,  and  why 
should  they  accumulate  more  ?  Some,  who  were 
poor,  quartered  themselves  upon  those  who  were  rich  ; 
some  gave  away  their  property  to  those  who  wished 
to  use  it.  There  were  some,  however,  who  were 
more  considerate  ;  they  continued  to  work  at  their 
calling,  built  houses  and  substantial  fences,  and  con 
ducted  in  all  respects  as  they  would  if  the  world  was 
to  continue  many  years,  and  assigned  as  a  reason  for 
so  doing,  that  the  command  of  Christ  was,  "  Occupy 
till  I  come." 

At  this  stage  of  the  excitement,  many  who  had 
regarded  it  as  ephemeral,  and  as  something  which 
could  do  no  harm,  perceived  their  mistake,  and  did 
what  they  could  to  enlighten  the  minds  of  those  who 
needed  instruction  on  this  subject.  Many  valuable 
Essays  were  published  by  Stuart,  Pond,  Bowling, 
Weeks,  and  others,  in  opposition  to  the  peculiar 
sentiments  of  Miller.  They  proved,  as  conclusively 
as  any  moral  truth  can  be  proved,  that  the  world 
would  not  end  in  1843,  for  there  were  prophecies  to 
be  fulfilled  before  the  end  should  come,  that  would 


404  THP:   HALF   CENTURY. 

not  be  previous  to  that  time ;  they  proved,  more 
over,  that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  man  to  fix  the 
time  when  the  Savior  shall  come,  for  it  is  hidden 
from  men,  even  as  a  foreknowledge  of  the  day  of 
death  is  hidden.  But  it  was  too  late  ;  arguments 
were  of  no  avail ;  opposition  to  their  sentiments  was 
persecution;  they  had  seen  the  star  that  foreboded 
the  appearing  of  the  Son  of  man,  and  knew  he  would 
come.  Some  provided  themselves  with  white  robes, 
called  "  ascension  robes,"  in  which  they  expected  to 
have  time  to  array  themselves  after  Christ's  appearing 
should  be  announced. 

Many  persons  became  deranged  under  the  excite 
ment,  and  were  carried  to  lunatic  asylums,  and  some 
committed  suicide.  The  23d  of  April  was  the  day 
fixed  upon  on  which  the  affairs  of  this  world  would 
end ;  the  day  came,  and  passed  peaceful  and  quiet  as 
other  days,  with  no  remarkable  appearance  in  the 
heavens  above,  or  in  the  earth  beneath,  except,  here 
and  there,  a  deluded  disciple  of  Miller  was  gazing 
at  the  eastern  portion  of  the  heavens,  to  see  if  he 
could  not  discern  a  gathering  cloud  or  a  chariot 
of  fire. 

It  was  hoped,  though  hardly  expected,  that  the 
advocates  of  these  peculiar  views  would  come  out 
and  say  they  were  mistaken  ;  but  no,  they  had  too 
much  pride  of  opinion  to  confess  they  were  in  error  ; 
they  were  forced  to  admit,  however,  that  there  was  a 
little  mistake  ;  that  the  event  would  take  place  at  the 
end,  rather  than  at  the  beginning,  of  the  Jewish  year. 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  405 

They  might  be  sure  the  end  would  come  March  22, 
1844. 

About  a  week  previous  to  this  last  date,  Mr.  Miller 
lectured  in  a  country  village,  arid  at  the  close  said, 
that  "within  the  succeeding  ten  days  he  expected  to 
witness  the  end  ;  to  see  Daniel,  and  Abraham,  and 
Paul,  and  all  the  prophets  and  apostles ;  and  that  he 
had  no  more  doubt  of  this  than  of  the  fact  of  his 
own  existence."  He  urged  those  who  heard  him  to 
search  the  Scriptures ;  that  if  they  would  do  so  a 
fortnight^  they  would  be  convinced  he  was  correct. 
At  the  close  of  his  lecture,  he  bade  them  all  farewell, 
assuring  them  they  would  see  his  face  no  more.  The 
specified  day  came,  as  calm  and  bright  a  harbinger 
of  spring  as  ever  shone  upon  the  earth.  The  Son 
of  man  did  not  appear  in  the  clouds  of  heaven. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  handbills  were  posted  up  in 
one  of  our  cities,  announcing  a  course  of  lectures,  for 
the  next  week,  on  the  second  advent.  Publishers  of 
books,  and  lecturers,  who  had  reaped  a  bountiful  har 
vest,  were  interested  in  prolonging  the  time  and  con 
tinuing  the  excitement ;  some  fixed  upon  September 
of  that  year,  and  some  thought  it  would  be  in  1847, 
as  chronologers  differed  four  years  in  the  dates  of  this 
world's  history  ;  but  they  did  not  succeed.  The  ex 
citement  was  at  an  end.  Some  returned  to  their 
employments,  believing  that  Christ  would  come  in 
the  manner  they  had  been  taught,  but  they  could  not 
tell  when  he  would  come,  and  that  it  was  their  duty 
to  be  in  constant  readiness.  Very  few,  it  is  believed, 


406  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

returned  to  the  churches  from  which  they  came  out  ; 
some  became  entirely  unsettled  in  their  religious  be 
lief,  and  others  teach  that  the  souls  of  the  wicked  will 
be  annihilated  at  death. 

The  Christian  world  has  learned  from  this  devel 
opment  the  importance  of  doctrinal  preaching ;  min 
isters  have  been  taught  to  feed  their  flocks  with 
knowledge. 

It  may  be  said,  in  conclusion,  that  many  distin 
guished  men,  connected  chiefly  with  the  Episcopal 
church  in  England,  believe  that  Christ  will  appear 
on  earth  a  second  time,  and  reign  in  person  a  thou 
sand  years.  Among  these  English  adventist  writers 
are  found  the  names  of  Bickersteth,  Keith,  and  W. 
Cunningham.  I  believe  they  have  never  fixed  the 
day  of  his  coming,  but  have  warned  men  of  the 
speedy  approach  of  that  day. 

The  more  intelligent  followers  of  Miller  have  cov 
ered  their  retreat  by  identifying  themselves  with  the 
English  Adventists,  and  are  not  ashamed  of  the  good 
company  in  which  they  now  find  themselves. 


SECTION  3.     New  Sects,  mostly  evangelical. 

THERE  are  many  circumstances,  in  which,  when 
men  are  placed,  some  new  views  of  a  truth  are  forced 
upon  their  attention.  If  they  proceed  to  harmonize 
these  with  other  truths,  they  form  a  creed  that  differs 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  407 

so  much  from  others,  that  it  forms  the  nucleus  of  a 
new  sect. 

Those  who  embrace  the  substantial  and  funda 
mental  doctrines  of  the  Bible  are  broken  up  into  so 
many  fragments,  that  much  of  the  power  of  Chris 
tianity  seems  to  be  lost.  There  is  one  advantage, 
however,  growing  out  of  this  division.  If  any  of 
these  sects  are  loose  in  their  practice,  or  have  in  their 
system  any  great  error,  the  moment  they  separate 
themselves  from  the  great  whole,  their  influence  is 
circumscribed,  and  their  system  is  put  to  a  severe 
test. 

Several  new  sects,  that  are  for  the  most  part  evan 
gelical  in  their  sentiments,  have  sprung  into  being 
during  the  last  fifty  years,  of  which  I  propose  to  give 
a  brief  account. 

The  prevalence  of  a  spirit  of  liberty  has  had  much 
to  do  with  this  matter.  Men  are  free,  and  claim  the 
right  to  think  for  themselves  in  religious  as  well  as  in 
political  matters. 

Christians,  called  also  the  Christian  Connection,  is 
a  sect  composed  of  those  who  withdrew  from  three 
Protestant  denominations  —  the  Methodists  of  the 
south,  the  Baptists  of  the  north,  and  the  Presbyteri 
ans  of  the  west. 

Previous  to  the  revolution,  the  Methodists  in  the 
Southern   States  were  regarded  as  a  branch  of  the      ^ 
Church  of  England ;  but  after  the  revolution,  they 
regarded  themselves  as  severed  from  that  church,  and 
free  to  organize  a  system  of  their  own.     The  ques- 


408  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

tion  was  debated  in  their  conferences,  whether  they 
should  adopt  the  Episcopal  or  Congregational  form 
of  government.  The  majority  were  in  favor  of  Epis 
copacy  ;  and  so  many  of  the  minority  as  could  not 
submit  to  that  system  withdrew,  and  called  them 
selves  Republican  Methodists.  This  was  in  1793. 
Subsequently,  they  resolved  to  be  known  only  as 
Christians,  acknowledging  no  head  but  Christ,  and  no 
creed  but  the  Bible. 

About  the  year  1800,  Dr.  Abner  Jones,  of  Hart- 
land,  Vermont,  a  member  of  a  Baptist  church,  had 
some  trials  of  mind  in  regard  to  sects,  and  thought  it 
expedient  there  should  be  another.  His  plan  was, 
that  there  should  be  no  creed  but  the  Bible.  His 
views  spread  with  considerable  rapidity,  and  many 
Baptist  churches  were  organized  on  that  platform. 

During  a  revival  among  the  Presbyterians  in  Ken 
tucky  and  Tennessee,  in  1801,  many  preachers  be 
came  exceedingly  zealous,  broke  away  from  the  Cal- 
vinistic  creed,  and  organized  themselves  into  a  separate 
presbytery.  In  1803,  they  agreed  to  be  known  only 
as  Christians,  to  adopt  the  Bible  as  their  guide,  and 
baptism  by  immersion  as  the  only  scriptural  mode. 

These  three  fragments  subsequently  united,  and 
form  what  is  called  the  Christian  Connection.  I  do 
not  know  the  date  of  their  union.  They  have  a  Book 
Concern,  located  at  Union  Mills,  New  York.  They 
publish  three  newspapers,  and  have  three  literary 
institutions.  In  1844,  they  had  about  1,500  churches, 
with  as  many  preachers,  and  325,000  communi- 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  409 

cants.  Many  of  this  sect  reject  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity. 

Church  of  God.  —  The  sect  bearing  this  name 
may  be  regarded  as  an  offshoot  from  the  German  Re 
formed  church,  which  received  persons  to  its  com 
munion  without  any  evidence  of  repentance  or  regen 
eration.  During  a  revival  in  some  of  those  churches 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1820,  some  ministers  became  convinced  that  none 
ought  to  be  admitted  to  the  church  who  did  not  give 
evidence  of  conversion.  In  1825,  they  began  to 
form  German  churches  in  accordance  with  that  opin 
ion,  and  called  them  churches  of  God.  They  believe 
in  three  sacraments  —  baptism,  the  Lord's  supper,  and 
feet-washing.  They  are  confined  chiefly  to  Penn 
sylvania  and  Ohio.  They  have  83  ministers,  125 
churches,  and  10,000  communicants. 

Campbellites,  or  Disciples  of  Christ.  —  Thomas 
Campbell,  a  seceder  from  the  Presbyterian  church  in 
Ireland,  came  to  this  country  and  settled  in  Pennsylva 
nia  about  1810.  He  was  in  favor  of  uniting  all  sects, 
by  adopting  the  Bible  as  their  creed.  Alexander,  the 
son  of  Thomas  Campbell,  had  just  completed  his  ed 
ucation  in  Scotland,  and  fell  in  with  his  father's 
views.  They  considered  nothing  binding,  unless 
they  could  produce  in  support  of  it  "  Thus  saith  the 
Lord." 

The  father  and  son  soon  embraced  the  views  of 
the  Baptists,  and  were  immersed  in  1812.  This 
brought  them  into  closer  connection  with  the  Bap- 
35 


410  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

lists  than  with  Presbyterian  churches,  of  one  of  which 
Alexander  became  pastor.  Some  of  the  Baptists  dis 
sented  from  some  of  his  novelties,  which  created  so 
much  discord  that,  with  thirty  of  his  followers,  he 
removed  to  Virginia  in  1825.  There  his  sentiments 
were  more  cordially  received ;  and  in  1828  the  asso 
ciation  to  which  he  belonged  rejected  all  human  for 
mularies,  and  all  claim  to  jurisdiction,  and  held  only 
an  annual  meeting  to  hear  reports  of  the  progress  of 
their  churches.  The  Campbellite  Baptists  are  numer 
ous  in  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Indi 
ana,  and  Ohio.  They  reported,  in  1849,  1,898 
churches,  848  ministers,  and  118,618  members.  Al 
exander  Campbell  is  said  to  be  a  man  of  talent,  has 
held  many  public  debates  with  infidels  and  others, 
and  has  shown  himself  to  be  a  strong  man.  In  the 
American  Biblical  Repository  for  1839  and  1840  may 
be  found  an  account  of  his  peculiar  views  and  a  reply 
to  it  by  himself.  He  is  now  between  sixty  and  sev 
enty  years  of  age  ;  and  it  is  believed  the  denomina 
tion  will  break  up  at  his  decease,  for  the  want  of  a 
leader. 

Methodist  Protestant  Church.  —  This  is  made  up 
of  a  secession  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  churches 
in  the  Southern  and  Western  States.  The  reason 
of  the  separation  was,  that  the  rulers  in  that  church 
denied  that  the  members  of  the  churches  had  a  right 
to  be  represented  in  conference,  and  claimed  that  all 
the  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  ministry. 

The  first  convention  of  these    seceding  churches 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  411 

was  holden  in  Baltimore,  in  1830.  The  two  princi 
ples  which  form  the  basis  on  which  they  stand  are, 
that  Christ  is  the  head  of  the  church,  and  that  mem 
bers  have  a  right  to  take  part  in  its  government  and 
discipline.  They  have  798  preachers,  771  churches, 
and  62,305  communicants. 

Reformed  Methodist  Church.  —  This  is  also  a 
secession  from  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  It 
began  in  Whitingham  and  Readsboro',  Vermont, 
in  1814.  A  few  individuals  became  dissatisfied  with 
the  anti-democratic  form  of  government,  and  organ 
ized  themselves  into  a  church  on  Congregational 
principles,  retaining  the  doctrines  of  the  Episcopal 
Methodists. 

At  the  time  of  the  True  Wesleyan  secession,  under 
Rev.  Orange  Scott,  they  had  in  New  England  and  New 
York  50  preachers  and  3,000  members.  Since  then, 
they  have  been  numbered  among  the  Wesleyan s. 

The  True  Wesleijans.  —  This  order  of  Method 
ists  claim  that  all  was  not  gained  by  the  Reformed 
Methodists  which  should  have  been.  They  maintain 
that  the  Episcopal  form  of  government,  as  it  exists 
in  Methodist  churches,  and  the  slavery  of  man  by  his 
fellow-man,  are  contrary  to  the  principles  of  Wesley, 
the  founder  of  Methodism.  Rev.  Le  Roy  Sunder- 
land,  Orange  Scott,  Luther  Lee,  and  others  from  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  church,  together  with  several 
from  the  Protestant  and  Reformed  Methodist  churches, 
met  in  convention  at  Utica,  in  May,  1843,  and,  after 


412  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

several  days'  deliberation,  adopted  a  form  of  disci 
pline  acknowledging  all  men  to  be  free  and  equal, 
and  giving  to  local  preachers  and  members  of 
churches  a  right  to  vote  in  all  matters  pertaining  to 
the  government  of  the  church.  They  deny  the  ex 
istence  of  bishops,  and  believe  that  all  ministers  have 
equal  authority.  They  numbered,  at  that  time,  300 
ministers  and  20,000  members. 

The  division  that,  took  place  in  the  Methodist  Epis 
copal  church,  dividing  it  into  the  churches  north  and 
south,  on  account  of  slavery,  took  away  the  chief 
reason  for  organizing  the  Wesleyan  conference,  and 
has  prevented  its  growth.  The  division  took  place 
in  1844. 

Reformed  Mennonite  Society. — The  Mennonites 
in  this  country  are  Germans,  who  baptize  by  pouring 
the  water  upon  the  head,  and  reject  infant  baptism. 

In  1811,  some  of  their  ministers  were  impressed 
with  the  conviction  that  many  errors  had  crept  in 
among  them,  that  their  churches  were  corrupt  in 
doctrine,  and  that  it  was  time  to  return  to  the  old 
paths.  They  consulted  together,  and  appointed  Rev. 
John  Herr,  of  Pennsylvania,  to  be  their  leader  in  the 
work  of  reform.  They  do  not  think  it  right  to  num 
ber  their  people,  because  it  looks  like  making  a  dis 
play.  They  may  be  found  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in 
the  border  counties  of  New  York  and  Ohio. 

Cumberland  Presbyterians.  —  At  the  commence 
ment  of  this  century,  there  was  a  remarkable  revival 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  413 

of  religion  in  the  Western  States.  The  people  went 
twenty  and  fifty  miles  to  attend  religious  meetings, 
carrying  their  provisions  with  them,  and  remaining 
several  days.  This  was  the  commencement  of  camp- 
meetings  in  this  country.  They  grew  out  of  the 
wants  of  the  people,  which  could  not  otherwise  be 
met.  There  being  a  scarcity  of  ministers,  it  was 
proposed  that  some  of  the  best  educated  and  most 
promising  young  men  should  be  selected  from  among 
the  converts,  and  be  licensed  to  preach  the  gospel. 
This  movement  was  among  Presbyterians,  /whose 
rules  required  that  ministers  should  be  well  edu 
cated. 

In  1802,  three  young  men  were  licensed  in  Cum 
berland  county,  Kentucky.  Some  of  the  ministers 
opposed  the  measure,  and  complained  to  the  synod 
of  the  irregularity  of  the  presbytery.  The  presby 
tery  was  reproved  by  the  synod,  and  the  licenses 
they  had  given  declared  to  be  invalid.  The  ag 
grieved  petitioned  to  the  General  Assembly  for  re 
dress.  The  action  of  the  synod  was  approved.  In 
February,  1810,  three  ministers  withdrew  from  the 
presbytery,  and  organized  an  independent  presbytery, 
which  they  called  the  Cumberland  presbytery.  They 
adopted  the  Presbyterian  confession  of  faith,  omitting 
the  article  on  predestination,  and  admitted  young 
men  to  licenses  who  had  only  a  good  English  edu 
cation. 

They  have  increased  very  rapidly,  and  have  done 
35* 


414  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

much  good  in  the  western  country.  They  have 
three  colleges,  and  two  religious  newspapers.  They 
have  1,200  congregations,  850  ministers,  and  80,000 
communicants.  Some  statements  say  they  have  only 
480  churches,  350  ministers,  arid  50,000  communi 
cants. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

CHAPTER   XI. 

MISCELLANIES. 

SECTION  1.     Exploring  Expeditions. 

SEVERAL  expeditions  have  been  fitted  out  at  the 
expense  of  the  United  States,  during  the  last  fifty 
years,  to  explore  sections  of  our  own  and  other  coun 
tries. 

After  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  Messrs.  Lewis  and 
Clarke  were  sent  to  explore  the  Missouri  River  to  its 
source,  and  were  then  to  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  follow  down  the  first  stream  they  should  strike 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They  left  St.  Louis  May  14, 
1804,  spent  the  winter  at  the  Mandan  villages,  crossed 
the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the  spring  of  1805,  followed 
a  stream,  which  they  called  Lewis  River,  to  its  junc 
tion  with  another  they  called  Clarke  River,  which 
united  stream  they  named  Columbia  River,  and  pro 
ceeded  to  the  Pacific,  where  they  spent  the  winter, 
and  returned  to  Washington  in  1806. 

August  8,  1838,  several  ships  sailed  from  Norfolk, 
Virginia,  under  the  command  of  Charles  Wiikes,  to 
explore  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  to  approach  as  near 
the  South  Pole  as  possible.  This  they  were  to  do 
in  the  summer,  and,  on  the  approach  of  winter,  to 
enter  the  Pacific  Ocean,  survey  the  coasts  and  har- 


416  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

bors  along  the  American  continent,  arid  visit  various 
groups  of  islands.  They  proceeded  as  far  as  67°  south 
latitude,  until  prevented  by  ice,  and  traversed  the  icy 
barrier  between  62°  and  67°,  from  158°  east  longi 
tude  to  94°,  a  distance  of  1,500  miles,  seeing  land  in 
twelve  places.  Mr.  Wilkes  claims  to  have  first  dis 
covered  the  southern  continent  from  160°  east  longi 
tude.  The  expedition  returned  in  1842,  and  a  jour 
nal  of  the  voyage  has  been  published,  in  eight 
splendid  volumes,  with  plates  arid  maps. 

In  1842,  an  expedition  was  fitted  out,  under  Colonel 
J.  C.  Fremont,  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  They 
went  as  far  as  Fremont's  Peak,  to  the  sources  of  the 
Platte  and  Arkansas  Rivers,  and  returned  to  St. 
Louis  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year. 

In  1843,  Colonel  Fremont  set  out  on  another  ex 
pedition,  and  proceeded  to  Oregon,  thence  south  to 
New  California,  and  -returned  in  1844.  The  journal 
of  these  two  tours  was  published  by  Congress  in 
1845. 

Near  the  close  of  1848,  Colonel  Fremont  set  out 
on  another  expedition,  to  explore  the  country  about 
the  sources  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  Colorado.  The 
company  was  overtaken  by  a  terrible  snow  storm 
among  the  mountains,  in  which  their  mules  perished, 
and  the  men  barely  escaped  with  their  lives.  The 
colonel  found  his  way  to  California,  assisted  in  the 
organization  of  a  state  government,  was  elected  sena 
tor  to  Congress,  and  took  his  seat  in  September, 
1850. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  417 

In  November,  1847,  an  expedition  was  fitted  out 
under  the  command  of  W.  P.  Lynch,  an  officer  of 
the  navy,  to  explore  the  Dead  Sea.  The  expedition, 
having  finished  the  survey,  returned  in  December, 
1848.  Mr.  Lynch's  journal,  published  in  1849,  forms 
a  large  octavo  volume,  full  of  interesting  and  minute 
details. 

I  may  add  here  that  the  American  Board  of  Com 
missioners  have,  by  means  of  agents  sent  by  them  to 
explore  portions  of  different  countries,  and  by  the 
journals  of  their  missionaries  that  have  been  pub 
lished,  added  much  to  the  stock  of  our  geographical 
and  ethnological  knowledge. 

In  July,  1823,  Rev.  J.  C.  Brigham,  no\v  secretary  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  sailed  from  Boston  to 
make  explorations  in  South  America.  He  was  sent 
by  the  American  Board,  spent  some  time  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  crossed  over  to  Chili,  came  up  the  Pacific 
shore,  visiting  the  principal  places,  went  through  a 
part  of  Mexico,  and  returned  home  ia  1826.  His 
letters,  containing  much  valuable  information,  may 
be  found  in  the  Missionary  Herald  of  those  years. 

Near  the  close  of  1828,  Rev.  Dr.  Anderson,  now 
secretary  of  the  American  Board,  was  sent  on  an 
agency  to  Greece.  He  returned  in  December,  1829, 
and  published  an  interesting  volume  of  travels  in 
Greece. 

In  1830  and  1831,  Rev.  Eli  Smith  and  Rev.  H.  G. 
O.  Dvvight,  missionaries  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Medi 
terranean,  were  directed  to  visit  the  Armenian  Chris- 


418  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

tians  in  the  countries  where  they  reside,  to  ascertain 
their  condition,  and  the  prospects  of  doing  them 
good.  They  left  Malta  in  March,  1830,  and  returned 
in  1831.  They  went  over  a  portion  of  Asia  Minor, 
Georgia,  and  Persia.  Their  researches  were  pub 
lished  in  1833,  in  two  volumes. 

In  1835,  Rev.  Samuel  Parker  was  sent  by  the 
American  Board  to  visit  the  tribes  of  Indians  west 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  He  went  over  the  moun 
tains  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia,  took  passage 
from  thence  in  a  ship  to  the  Sandwich  Islands,  and 
returned  by  the  way  of  Cape  Horn  in  May,  1837. 
He  published  a  volume  of  observations  and  incidents, 
of  much  value. 

In  December,  1829,  Rev.  Josiah  Brewer,  missionary 
of  the  American  Board,  published  a  volume,  being 
a  journal  of  a  year's  residence  at  Constantinople. 

In  1843,  Rev.  J.  Perkins,  D.  D.,  missionary  to  the 
Nestorians,  published  an  octavo  volume,  entitled 
Eight  Years'  Residence  in  Persia. 

In  1837,  Rev.  Dr.  Robinson  set  out  on  an  expedi 
tion  to  the  Holy  Land,  at  his  own  expense,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  biblical  researches.  .  He  arrived 
at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  near  the  close  of  the  year. 
He  spent  about  a  year  in  visiting  localities  in  Pales 
tine,  Mount  Sinai,  and  Arabia,  that  are  mentioned  in 
the  sacred  Scriptures.  He  was  accompanied  by  Rev. 
Eli  Smith.  In  1841,  Dr.  Robinson  published  his  re 
searches  in  three  octavo  volumes ;  a  learned  and  val 
uable  work. 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  419 

Our  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  has 
been  very  much  increased  by  the  labors  of  American 
travellers. 

Other  nations  have  done  much  in  the  same  way. 
Tim  English  have  been  indefatigable  in  their  efforts 
to  find  a  ship  passage  from  Baffin's  Bay  to  Behring's 
Straits,  and  to  penetrate  as  far  as  possible  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Sir  John  Franklin  has  been  absent  more 
than  three  years  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
waters  north  of  the  American  continent,  and,  as 
nothing  has  been  heard  from  him,  fears  are  enter 
tained  that  he,  with  his  crew,  are  lost.  Lady  Frank 
lin  has  offered  a  large  reward  for  information  respect 
ing  him,  and  diligent  search  is  being  made  for  the 
missing  fleet. 


SECTION  2.     Diseases. 

I  DO  not  propose,  under  this  head,  to  give  any 
thing  like  a  history  of  the  diseases  that  have  prevailed 
during  the  last  fifty  years  ;  I  shall  only  put  down  a 
few  notes,  and  bring  together  a  few  scraps  of  infor 
mation  that  I  have  found  in  my  survey  of  the  history 
of  the  past. 

Consumption.  —  From  one  fourth  to  one  seventh 
of  all  the  deaths,  says  Dr.  Shattuck,  who  has  in 
vestigated  this  subject  pretty  thoroughly,  in  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States,  and,  perhaps,  throughout 
the  civilized  world,  are  caused  by  consumption. 
Thisv  frightful  mortality,  if  ever  arrested,  must  be  by 


420  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

a  removal  of  causes  that  induce  it,  rather  than  by  the 
discovery  of  any  means  of  curing  it  when  it  has 
become  seated.  If  the  causes  were  better  understood, 
the  number  of  deaths  might  be  greatly  diminished 
by  precautionary  measures.  From  the  fact  that  it 
prevails  least  among  farmers,  and  most  among  females 
and  persons  of  sedertary  habits,  we  may  fairly  infer, 
that  if  all  our  population  would  accustom  themselves 
daily  to  one  or  two  hours'  exercise  in  the  open  air, 
the  victims  of  this  disease  would  be  fewer  than  they 
are.  The  lungs  must  have,  as  a  condition  of  health, 
a  supply  of  pure  atrrosphere.  If  any  will  shut  them 
selves  up  in  small  rooms,  or  large  ones  unventilated, 
the  blood  will  not  be  sufficiently  arterialized  to  pre 
serve  health. 

Scarlet  Fever.  —  This  disease  prevailed  in  New 
England  first  in  1735,  and  continued  making  fright 
ful  havoc  among  children  for  two  or  three  years,  and 
then  ceased  to  prevail,  so  as  to  excite  much  alarm, 
for  almost  a  century. 

In  1832,  there  were  200  deaths  by  this  fever  in 
Boston,  and  222  in  1839.  The  disease  was  then 
epidemic  ;  and  during  those  and  the  intermediate 
years,  it  prevailed  extensively  in  New  England. 

Spotted  Fever.  —  This  was  a  malignant  fever,  in 
which  the  patient  had  large  red  spots  here  and  there, 
which  gave  the  name  to  the  disease.  It  prevailed  as 
an  epidemic  from  1806  to  1815.  It  first  appeared  in 
Medfield,  Massachusetts,  and  last  in  Berwick,  Maine, 
in  1815.  In  1812,  the  United  States  army  in  New 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  421 

York  and  Vermont  suffered  by  it  severely.  It  pre 
vailed  most  among  the  scattered  population  of  the 
interior,  and  very  little  in  the  large  towns  on  the  sea- 
coast. 

Dr.  Gallup,  on  the  epidemics  of  Vermont,  says, 
"  There  are  but  few  towns  whose  surviving  inhab 
itants  will  not  long,  with  grief,  remember  the  winter 
of  1812  and  1813,  for  the  loss  of  20,  40,  or  80  of 
their  most-valuable  citizens ;  most  valuable  to  society 
on  account  of  their  being  adult  persons,  and  at  the 
acme  of  human  life." 

In  Thompson's  History  of  Vermont,  it  is  said, 
"The  disease  continued  its  devastations  about  two 
years.  It  was  the  most  alarming  disease  ever  known 
in  the  state.  It  usually  attacked  persons  of  the  most 
hardy  and  robust  constitutions,  and  often  proved  fatal 
in  a  few  hours.  It  was  not  uncommon  that  the  pa 
tient  was  a  corpse  before  a  physician  could  be  brought 
to  his  assistance."  It  prevailed  most  in  the  winter. 

Inoculation  for  the  Kine  Pock.  —  That  inoculation 
for  this  disease  was  a  preventive  of  small-pox  was 
discovered  by  Dr.  Edward  Jenner,  of  England,  in 
1796.  The  experiment  was  first  tried  in  this  coun 
try  by  Dr.  Waterhouse,  of  Harvard  University,  in 
1799.  Daring  the  last  half  century,  we  have  suffered 
far  less  from  the  small-pox  than  we  should,  had  it  not 
been  for  this  invaluable  discovery.  Dr.  Jenner  died 
in  1823,  aged  73. 

Cholera.  —  This    terrible   disease,  the   scourge   of 
the  world,  first  appeared  in  North  America,  at  Q,ue- 
36 


422 


THE   HALF   CENTURY. 


bee,  June  8,  1832,  and  at  Montreal  on  the  10th.  It 
reached  its  height  in  each  city  in  ten  days,  when  the 
deaths  were  about  150  a  day.  By  the  last  of  June, 
it  had  spread  in  Canada  to  the  distance  of  500  miles. 
The  whole  number  of  deaths  in  Quebec,  from  June 
8  to  September  1,  was  2,218,  and,  in  Montreal,  1,843. 

It  appeared  in  the  city  of  New  York  June  27,  1832, 
on  which  day  two  children  died  in  one  family.  By 
the  4th  of  July,  it  had  spread  to  every  part  of  the 
city,  and  was  at  its  height  on  the  25th,  when  there 
were  115  deaths.  By  the  last  of  August,  it  had  dis 
appeared.  The  whole  number  of  deaths  was  2,521. 

The  first  case  occurred  in  Philadelphia  July  16, 
and  the  disease  was  at  its  height  on  the  25th,  when 
there  were  71  deaths.  The  whole  number  of  deaths, 
up  to  September  1,  was  747. 

It  appeared  in  Boston  August  15.  The  greatest 
number  of  deaths  in  a  day  was  6,  which  was  Septem 
ber  1.  The  whole  number  of  deaths  in  the  city 
was  85. 

The  following  table  will  show  its  ravages  in  some 
other  places  during  the  summer  of  1832  :  — 


Albany, 


Commenced  July        3.     Continued  61  days.      406  deaths. 


Newark,  N.  J., 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 

New  Haven,  Conn., 

Buffalo, 

Bergen,  N.  J., 

Sing  Sing, 

Rochester, 

Poughkeepsie, 

Baltimore, 

Utica, 


Aug. 


6. 

56 

64 

11. 

69 

191 

11. 

50 

17 

15. 

55 

144 

M 

56 

80 

17. 

50 

162 

23. 

48 

135 

3. 

28 

162 

10. 

42 

649 

12. 

27 

177   " 

THE  HALF  CENTURY.  423 

It  commenced  in  Cincinnati  in  July,  but  did  not 
become  epidemic  till  September.  It  continued 
through  most  of  the  summer  of  1833,  but  was  not 
very  severe. 

It  was  most  fatal  in  New  Orleans,  where  it  com 
menced  in  October,  1832.  During  ten  days  previous 
to  November,  there  were  1,500  deaths.  It  spread 
through  all  the  cities  and  large  towns  at  the  west ; 
but  the  deaths  did  not,  in  such  places  as  St.  Louis 
and  Cincinnati,  exceed  25  or  30  a  day.  It  prevailed 
in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  through  most  of  the 
summer  of  1833,  when  it  disappeared  from  the  country. 

In  December,  1848,  it  reappeared  almost  simul 
taneously  at  New  York  and  New  Orleans ;  at  the 
former  place,  however,  the  cases  were  comparatively 
few,  and  most  of  those  at  the  quarantine,  and  at  the 
hospital  on  Staten  Island. 

It  commenced  in  New  Orleans  about  December  12, 
increased  rapidly,  and  continued  through  the  winter. 
During  the  first  ten  days  of  January,  1849,  the  deaths 
were  75  a  day.  The  panic  was  very  great  for  a  time. 
It  is  not  known  how  many  died ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  it  decimated  the  inhabitants  that  remained  in 
some  wards  of  the  city. 

The  cholera  broke  out  in  New  York  during  the 
week  ending  May  19,  1849  ;  it  was  at  its  height  dur 
ing  the  week  ending  July  21,  when  there  were  714 
deaths.  The  mortality  that  week  was  the  greatest 
ever  known  in  any  city  in  the  United  States ;  the 
deaths  by  all  diseases  were  1,409. 


424  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

In  Boston,  deaths  by  cholera  in  1849,  611,  between 
June  3  and  September  30. 

It  was  very  severe  in  St.  Louis  and  in  Cincinnati. 
It  continued  in  each  city  from  May  to  August,  and 
there  were  in  each  city  more  than  6,000  deaths. 

It  spread  extensively  over  all  the  Middle  and  West 
ern  States,  and  in  many  towns  in  New  England. 

The  president  of  the  United  States  appointed 
August  3d  as  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer  to  God  that 
he  would  avert  "  the  pestilence  that  walketh  in  dark 
ness  and  the  destruction  that  wasteth  at  noonday." 
It  was  very  generally  and  seriously  observed  through 
the  country. 

There  were  some  cases  of  cholera  in  western 
cities  and  villages  in  1850. 


SECTION  3.     New  Systems  of  Medicine. 

THERE  have  been,  within  a  few  years  past,  three 
new  systems  of  medical  treatment  of  the  sick  intro 
duced  into  this  country  —  hydropathy,  homeopathy, 
and  Thompsonianism,  or  the  botanical  practice. 

Hydropathists  profess  to  cure  all  diseases,  that  are 
curable,  by  various  applications  of  cold  water.  The 
use  of  water  as  a  remedial  agent  in  diseases  has  been 
known  from  the  days  of  Hippocrates,  but  it  was  re 
served  to  this  age  to  discover  its  power  to  cure  all 
diseases. 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  425 

In  1816,  Vincent  Priessnitz,  a  small  farmer  in  Sile 
sia,  instinctively  immersed  his  wounded  finger  in  cold 
water,  and  held  it  there  until  it  ceased  to  bleed.  He 
observed  that  it  healed  very  soon,  and  without  in 
flammation.  He  thereupon  resorted  to  the  use  of 
water  for  all  similar  injuries,  and  began  to  prescribe 
the  same  for  the  bruises  and  wounds  of  his  neighbors. 
He  was  visited  by  persons  from  other  towns,  and 
finally  devoted  all  his  time  to  patients.  He  estab 
lished  a  sort  of  hospital,  and  was  prosecuted  for 
quackery.  The  government  sent  a  commission  to 
investigate  his  practice.  The  report  was,  that  he 
prescribed  nothing  but  cold  water,  simple  diet,  and 
exercise,  which  were  harmless,  and  he  was  allowed 
to  continue  his  business. 

In  1833,  two  men  of  distinction,  having  been  in 
jured  by  the  malpractice  of  other  physicians,  and 
benefited  by  the  prescriptions  of  Priessnitz,  became 
his  devoted  friends,  commenced  a  war  upon  drugs, 
and  celebrated  the  praises  of  hydropathy.  This, 
more  than  any  thing  else,  brought  Priessnitz  into  no 
tice,  and  spread  his  fame  in  Europe  and  to  America. 
Water  was  used  as  a  stimulant  and  sedative,  as  an 
astringent  and  aperient,  and,  indeed,  as  a  universal 
agent  for  producing  changes  in  the  animal  economy. 

The  temperance  movement  in  this  country  had  in 
some  measure  prepared  the  way  to  hear  about  the 
virtues  of  cold  water.  Since  1840,  several  hydro 
pathic  hospitals,  or  "  water  cures,"  as  they  are  called, 
have  been  opened  in  this  country.  There  is  one  at 
36* 


426  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

Brattleboro',  Vermont,  one  at  Philadelphia,  one  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  one  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts, 
and  others  too  numerous  to  mention.  Every  body 
believes  that  water  is  an  important  agent ;  it  is  much 
used  in  diseases  by  all  physicians,  but  the  number  is 
comparatively  small  of  those  who  are  prepared  to  re 
gard  it  as  the  grand  catholicon,  a  remedy  for  all  dis 
eases. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  homoeopathy  is,  that 
the  remedy  for  a  disease,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  the 
substance  which,  when  given  to  a  healthy  person, 
will  produce  that  disease.  Other  physicians,  I  be 
lieve,  admit  that  this  is  true  in  some  cases,  but  not 
universally ;  they  give  a  nauseating  medicine  to  cure 
nausea,  and  many  stimulate  the  system  in  fevers. 
Another  principle  of  homoeopathy  is,  that  the  medi 
cine  given  should  act  directly  on  the  part  diseased ; 
that  to  create  disease  in  a  healthy  part  to  draw  it 
away  from  the  part  diseased,  increases  human  suffer 
ing  and  endangers  life.  They  say  a  very  small  quan 
tity  will  affect  a  diseased  organ ;  hence  the  reason  of 
their  giving  infinitesimal  doses.  This  system  requires 
of  its  practitioners  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of 
diseases  and  remedies.  If,  however,  the  patient  is 
not  cured  by  the  medicine,  it  is  very  certain  he  will 
not  be  killed  by  it. 

The  author  of  this  system  is  Samuel  F.  C.  Hahne- 
mann,  of  Saxony.  He  was  born  in  1755,  and  died  a 
few  years  since.  He  spent  much  time,  in  the  early 
part  of  his  life,  in  translating  English  medical  works 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  427 

into  the  German  language  ;  and,  being  dissatisfied  with 
the  theory  respecting  the  effect  of  Peruvian  bark,  he 
began  to  perform  experiments.  He  found  that  it 
would  produce  chill  and  fever  in  a  well  man,  and 
would  also  cure  the  disease  thus  created.  He  exper 
imented  with  other  drugs,  and  satisfied  himself  that 
the  surest  remedy  for  any  disease  is  a  small  dose  of 
that  which,  if  given  in  large  quantities,  will  produce 
it.  He  manufactured  his  own  medicines,  for  the  sake 
not  only  of  having  them  pure,  but  to  get  them  in  as 
concentrated  a  form  as  possible.  In  Germany,  the 
apothecary  and  physician  are  distinct  persons,  and  the 
laws  do  not  allow  the  latter  to  interfere  with  the 
business  of  the  former.  Hahnemann  was  prosecuted 
by  the  apothecaries  for  manufacturing  his  own  medi 
cine,  and  was  obliged  to  remove  from  the  state.  In 
1810,  he  published  his  first  treatise  on  the  subject, 
which  was  followed  by  a  dispute,  that  continued 
until  1822.  In  1821,  he  took  up  his  residence  in 
Anhalt-Cothen,  where  he  continued  till  his  death. 

This  mode  of  practice  has  been  introduced  into 
England,  Scotland,  and  the  United  States.  In  1834, 
there  were  but  three  homoeopathic  physicians  in  this 
country.  A  medical  school,  in  which  this  system  was 
taught,  was  established  at  Allentown,  Pennsylvania, 
about  1837.  Soon  after  this,  there  were  homcEopathic 
physicians  in  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  and  St.  Louis. 
From  an  address  delivered  before  the  Hahnemann 
Academy  of  Medicine  in  New  York,  in  January, 
1850,  it  appears  that  in  the  state  of  New  York  there 


428  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

are  300,000  people  who  employ  homoeopathic  physi 
cians,  and  that  not  less  than  300  of  the  regular  grad 
uated  and  licensed  physicians  of  the  state  have 
adopted  this  mode  of  practice.  It  is  spreading  ex 
tensively  in  other  states. 

Dr.  Thompson,  the  founder  of  the  Thompsonian 
school  of  medicine,  died  in  Boston  since  1840.  His 
personal  history  I  have  not  ascertained.  The  leading 
principle  of  his  system  is,  that  all  diseases  are  pro 
duced  by  cold,  and  that  stimulating  or  heating  med 
icines  are  the  true  remedies.  Another  principle  is, 
that  all  metallic  and  mineral  medicines,  and  especial 
ly  mercurial,  are  extremely  injurious ;  and  that  God 
has  given  us,  in  the  vegetable  world,  a  specific  for 
every  disease.  The  disciples  of  this  system  are 
numerous,  and  are  scattered  over  all  the  land. 


SECTION  4.     Rural  Cemeteries. 

THOUGH  it  matters  not  where  the  dust  of  our 
friends  slumbers,  yet  we  love  to  think  of  their  re 
mains  as  lying  in  a  place  beautified  by  nature  and 
adorned  by  art. 

Some,  perhaps,  may  think  it  savors  more  of  pride 
than  of  piety  to  spend  much  time  or  money  in  orna 
menting  a  graveyard.  But  to  suffer  the  burial-place  to 
be  the  most  neglected  spot  in  all  the  town  seems  to  me 
to  indicate  a  great  lack  among  the  people  of  the  kind 
and  gentle  affections,  and  to  show  that  their  minds 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  429 

are  absorbed  in  the  cares  of  this  life.  If  the  fence 
is  broken  down,  cattle  graze  where  they  will,  and 
swine  wallow  on  the  newly-made  grave ;  if  head 
stones  are  defaced,  or  have  fallen  down,  and  briers 
and  brambles  grow  thick  over  all  the  ground,  does 
it  not  indicate  a  want  of  public  spirit,  and  an  unbe 
coming  indifference  to  the  scenes  of  eternity? 

It  is  certainly  pleasant  to  think  that,  when  we  die. 
our  bodies  will  not  be  cast  uncoffined  into  a  pit  by 
the  wayside,  but  decently  interred  in  a  spot 

"  sequestered  from  the  haunts  of  men, 
In  the  loveliest  nook  in  all  the  lovely  glen." 

Much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  improvement 
of  cemeteries,  or  rather  to  the  opening  of  rural  cem 
eteries,  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

President  Dwight,  of  Yale  College,  I  believe,  first 
called  attention  to  this  subject,  which  led  to  the 
beautifying  of  the  graveyard  in  New  Haven.  In 
1825,  the  people  in  Boston  began  to  talk  about  a 
rural  cemetery  ;  and  finally  a  company  purchased  a 
lot  of  land  two  miles  west  of  Cambridge,  consisting 
of  hill  and  dale,  of  forest  and  open  ground,  which  is 
beautifully  laid  out,  and  the  lots  are  sold  to  those 
who  may  choose  to  purchase.  It  is  called  Mount 
Auburn,  and  was  consecrated  September  26,  1831, 
on  which  occasion  an  address  was  delivered  by  Chief 
Justice  Story. 

This  cemetery  covers  more  than  one  hundred  acres 
of  land.  "  It  abounds  with  elegant  monuments  of 


430  THE   HALF  CENTURY. 

taste  and  touching  testimonials  of  affection ;  and 
with  singular  beauty  intermingles  the  charms  of  floral 
culture  with  the  untrained  wildness  of  nature.  Its 
silent  walks,  its  shaded  retreats,  its  calm  waters,  are 
all  sacred  to  tender  and  reverential  sentiments." 

Laurel  Hill  Cemetery,  on  the  banks  of  the  Schuyl- 
kill,  four  miles  from  Philadelphia,  was  consecrated  in 
1836.  The  grounds  are  laid  out  with  serpentine 
gravelled  walks,  and  the  whole  is  shaded  by  ancient 
forest  and  ornamental  trees. 

Green  Mount  Cemetery,  at  Baltimore,  cost  $65,000. 
It  was  consecrated  in  1838. 

Harmony  Grove  Cemetery,  in  Salem,  was  conse 
crated  in  June,  1840. 

Very  many  of  our  cities  and  large  towns  have  pro 
vided  themselves,  within  a  few  years,  with  rural  cem 
eteries.  The  moral  effect  of  this  attention  to  the 
place  where  the  dead  are  buried  is  good.  It  invites 
the  living  to  walk  among  the  tombs,  and  view  the 
ground  where  they  must  shortly  lie.  Such  grave 
yards  are  a  visible  memento  of  the  belief  of  the  liv 
ing  in  the  doctrine  of  immortality.  Men  cannot 
feel  that  their  friends,  whose  graves  they  protect  and 
adorn,  have  sunk  into  non-existence. 

"  Indifference  to  these  things  is  not  natural  to  any 
good  mind  or  heart.  Nature  says,  '  Bury  me  with 
my  fathers.'  " 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  431 

SECTION  5.     Supplying  Cities  with  Water. 

A  PLENTIFUL  supply  of  pure  water  is  of  great  im 
portance  to  the  inhabitants  of  large  cities.  The 
people  of  Rome,  2,000  years  ago,  paid  more  attention 
to  this  subject  than  has  been  given  to  it  by  any  other 
people,  ancient  or  modern.  It  was  conveyed  to  the 
city  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  through  aque 
ducts  constructed  at  a  great  expense.  In  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Nerva,  the  nine  main  aqueducts  dis 
charged  daily  27,800,000  cubic  feet  of  water,  and  all 
the  aqueducts  50,000,000  cubic  feet,  which  was  about 
300  gallons  daily  to  each  individual. 

The  aqueducts  of  Constantinople,  during  the  last 
century,  furnished  6  gallons  a  day  to  each  inhabitant 
of  the  city,  and  those  of  London  21  gallons. 

The  first  attempt  to  supply  a  city  with  water  in 
this  country,  on  a  large  and  liberal  scale,  was  made 
in  Philadelphia,  about  the  year  1800,  by  raising  it 
from  the  Schuylkill,  at  the  foot  of  Chestnut  Street,  by 
a  steam  engine,  and  throwing  it  into  a  reservoir  on 
high  ground,  from  which  it  was  conveyed  to  families 
in  wooden  pipes.  About  700,000  gallons  were  daily 
thrown  up,  at  an  expense  of  $200.  This  was  aban 
doned  in  1811,  and  the  next  year  an  engine  was 
stationed  at  Fairmount,  the  site  of  the  present  water 
works,  at  an  expense  of  $350,000.  Three  or  four 
years  after,  this  was  abandoned  for  the  present  sim 
pler  and  less  expensive  mode  of  raising  it.  A  dam 
was  thrown  across  the  Schuylkill,  and  a  power  ob- 


432  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

tained  which  turns  six  large  wheels,  each  of  which 
works  a  forcing  pump  that  throws  the  water  into  reser 
voirs  on  the  bank  ;  they  are  56  feet  above  the  highest 
ground  in  the  city.  The  Fairmount  waterworks 
went  into  operation  in  July,  1822,  and  cost  one  and  a 
half  millions  of  dollars.  The  daily  expense  of  keep 
ing  them  in  operation,  it  is  said,  does  not  exceed  $10. 

The  city  of  New  York  is  supplied  with  water 
taken  from  Croton  River,  at  Sing  Sing,  and  is  con 
veyed  to  the  city  through  an  aqueduct  40|  miles 
long.  A  high  dam  is  thrown  across  the  river,  and  a 
pond  raised  which  covers  500  acres.  It  is  introduced 
into  a  reservoir,  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city,  that 
covers  35  acres,  and  is  called  Croton  Lake.  It  passes 
from  thence  to  a  smaller  reservoir,  from  which  it  is 
conveyed  in  pipes  over  all  the  city.  The  aqueduct 
is  of  solid  masonry,  9  feet  by  6,  and  discharges  into 
the  city  daily,  on  an  average,  35,000,000  gallons  of 
water.  The  work  was  commenced  in  1836,  and 
completed  in  1842.  The  water  was  let  in  on  July  4 
of  that  year,  and  the  completion  of  the  work  cele 
brated  by  a  grand  procession,  October  14.  It  cost 
$10,375,000. 

The  city  of  Boston  is  supplied  with  water  from 
Long  Pond,  or  Lake  Cochituate,  in  Framingham. 
The  aqueduct  is  brick,  laid  in  water  cement.  It  fills 
a  reservoir  in  Brookline,  which  holds  a  sufficient 
quantity  to  supply  the  city  two  weeks.  There  is 
another  reservoir  on  Beacon  Hill,  back  of  the  State 
House,  made  of  Granite,  which  is  above  ground,  and 


THE   HALF   CENTURY.  433 

a  third  on  Telegraph  Hill,  in  South  Boston.  These 
reservoirs  are  connected  with  each  other  and  with  the 
main  pipes,  which  distribute  it  through  the  city 
The  distance  from  the  pond  to  the  reservoir  in 
Brookline  is  15  miles.  The  work  was  commenced 
August  20,  1846,  and  so  far  completed  that  the  water 
was  introduced  into  the  city  October  25,  1848. 
There  was  a  grand  water  celebration  on  that  day.  It 
was  admitted  into  the  reservoir  on  Beacon  Hill  in 
November,  1849.  The  whole  expense,  up  to  that 
date,  was  $3,900,000 ;  and  when  the  reservoir  at 
South  Boston  is  completed,  the  city  will  have  ex 
pended  four  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars.  The 
amount  of  water  discharged  from  the  lake  daily 
through  the  aqueduct  is  10,000,000  gallons. 

The  cities  of  Detroit  and  St.  Louis  have  hydraulic 
works,  by  which  the  water  of  the  lake  and  river  are 
thrown  into  reservoirs,  and  from  thence  distributed 
among  the  inhabitants  of  those  cities. 

In  1849,  Utica,  at  an  expense  of  $75,000,  was  well 
supplied  with  water. 


SECTION  6.     Ice  Trade. 

THE  following  article  was  prepared  by  a  son  of  the 
author,  who  died  April  17,  1849,  in  the  23d  year  of 
his  age :  — 

The  ice  trade  of  the  United  States,  like  many  other 
commercial  enterprises,  had  its  origin  in  Boston.  In 
37 


434  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

1805,  Frederic  Tudor,  of  that  city,  made  the  first 
experiment.  He  could  find  no  ship-owner  willing  to 
receive  so  strange  an  article  on  board  his  vessel ;  and, 
accordingly,  purchased  a  brig  of  130  tons,  loaded  it 
with  ice,  and  despatched  it  to  Martinique,  one  of  the 
West  India  Islands.  He  lost  $4,500  by  the  enter 
prise  ;  but  he  was  too  far-seeing  to  be  discouraged  by 
this.  He  followed  up  his  experiments,  though  with 
continued  losses.  In  1815,  he  made  shipments  of, ice 
to  Havana,  under  a  contract  with  the  government  of 
Cuba.  This  contract  proved  profitable.  In  1817, 
he  exported  ice  to  Savannah,  Georgia,  and  in  1820, 
to  New  Orleans.  In  1833,  the  first  shipment  of  ice 
to  the  East  Indies  was  made  by  Mr.  Tudor. 

Up  to  1832,  Mr.  Tudor  was  the  principal  exporter 
of  ice  ;  other  persons  engaging  in  the  traffic  were 
frightened  out  of  it  by  losses.  The  amount  of  ice 
shipped  by  Mr.  Tudor,  up  to  this  time,  was  compara 
tively  small  —  only  4352  tons.  It  was  taken  entirely, 
from  Fresh  Pond,  in  Cambridge. 

Since  that  period,  many  others  have  embarked  in. 
the  enterprise,  and  the  ice  trade  has  greatly  increased. 
During  the  year  1847,  the  amount  shipped  from  Bos 
ton  to  Southern  ports  in  the  United  States  was 
51,887  tons;  to  foreign  ports,  22.591  tons;  —  total, 
74,478  tons.  Three  hundred  and  fifty-three  vessels 
were  employed,  and  the  total  returns,  direct  and  in 
direct,  amounted  to  $507,651. 

This  ice  was  taken  from  ponds  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston.     The  article  used  in  packing  it  was  sawdust, 


;t HE   HALF   CENTUKY.  435 

of  which,  during  that  year,  4,600  cords  were  brought 
from  Maine,  costing  $2  50  per  cord,  delivered. 

The  price  of  ice  in  foreign  countries  varies  accord 
ing  to  the  competition.  In  Havana,  where  it  is  a 
monopoly,  it  sells  at  6^  cents  per  pound.  In  Calcut 
ta,  the  price  has  never  risen  above  6  cents,  and  it  is 
now  2i  cents  per  pound. 

In  our  southern  cities,  the  price  of  ice  is  brought 
very  low  by  competition,  and  it  is  so  common  that 
even  the  negroes  use  it.  In  New  Orleans,  it  is  sold 
at  from  half  a  cent  to  3  cents  per  pound,  and  the 
amount  used  exceeds  28,000  tons  annually. 

From  these  few  facts,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  traffic 
in  ice  is  productive  of  great  wealth  to  our  state.  The 
transitory  formation  of  a  winter's  cold  is  shielded 
from  the  dissolving  heat,  and  exchanged  for  the  cost 
liest  products  of  tropical  climes  ;  and  the  money 
expended  for  its  preparation  and  transportation,  as 
well  as  the  clear  profits  of  the  trade,  adds  to  our 
national  wealth.  Thus,  by  Yankee  ingenuity  and 
enterprise,  the  greatest  discomfort  of  our  climate  con 
tributes  to  our  means  of  happiness,  and  is  made  to 
distil  luxurious  coolness  among  the  nations  swelter 
ing  beneath  a  vertical  sun.  How  wonderful !  that 
what  is  to  us  the  freeest  gift  of  nature  should  become 
so  valuable  an  article  of  export  !  Not  more  wonder 
ful  would  it  be  if  we  could  box  up  the  sunlight,  and 
ship  it  to  those  polar  regions  where  months  of  con 
tinued  darkness  make  the  people  sigh  for  the  light 
of  day. 


436  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

SECTION  7.     Famines  at  the  Cape   Verd  Islands 
and  in  Ireland. 

THERE  was  a  terrible  famine  of  bread  at  the  Cape 
Verd  Islands  in  1831  and  1832.  In  the  spring  of 
1831,  there  was  such  a  lack  of  water  that  the  people 
could  not  irrigate  their  fields,  which  yield  nothing 
without.  This  was  followed  by  the  withholding  of 
the  usual  rains  in  July  and  August,  and  by  extreme 
heat,  so  that  every  green  thing  disappeared.  No 
vegetable  food  of  any  consequence  was  raised  upon 
the  islands  that  year,  nor  did  the  earth  yield  her 
increase  until  the  autumn  of  1832,  an,d  then  but 
sparingly. 

The  famine  commenced  in  the  latter  part  of  1831, 
and,  in  a  year,  30,000,  out  of  a  population  of  100,000, 
died  of  starvation.  On  the  Island  of  St.  Antonio, 
11,000  died  out  of  a  population  of  26,000.  The 
famine  was  somewhat  less  severe  on  the  other 
islands. 

The  news  of  their  condition  reached  this  country 
in  the  spring  of  1832  :  cargoes  of  provisions  were  sent 
immediately  from  New  York,  Portland,  Philadelphia, 
and  some  other  cities,  which  arrested  the  progress  of 
death  till  the  islands  became  fruitful.  When  told  that 
this  timely  supply  was  the  voluntary  contribution  of 
men,  women,  and  children,  they  were  filled  with 
astonishment.  One  of  the  chief  men  of  the  island 
expressed  the  gratitude  of  those  who  were  relieved 
in  the  following  language  :  — 


THE   HALF  CENTUKY.  437 

"Magnanimous  citizens  of  the  United  States! 
Souls  of  the  most  refined  philanthropy  !  May  Heaven, 
with  a  liberal  hand,  pour  upon  yon  its  choicest  bless 
ings  !  Far  from  us  you  did  hear  the  doleful  accents 
of  our  groans  ;  the  bitter  cries  of  our  deep  lamentations 
penetrated  to  the  bottom  of  your  hearts.  O  bene 
factors  of  the  people  of  Cape  Verds,  what  a  sweet 
change  have  you  wrought  in  our  condition!" 

A  terrible  famine  commenced  in  Ireland  in  1845, 
but  was  most  severe  in  1846.  The  immediate  cause 
was  the  loss  of  the  potato  crop,  in  consequence  of  the 
potato  rot.  In  that  country,  there  were  four  millions 
of  people  that  were  sustained  principally  by  this 
vegetable.  Rents  and  taxes  are  so  high,  that  it  takes 
all  the  produce  of  the  land,  except  a  few  barrels  of 
potatoes,  to  pay  them.  The  people,  therefore,  in 
ordinary  seasons,  are  on  the  verge  of  starvation.  If 
any  wide-spread  calamity  deprives  them  of  any.  im 
portant  agricultural  product,  the  whole  goes  for  taxes, 
and  the  people  must  suffer  the  horrors  of  famine.  Of 
course,  when  the  potato  crop  failed,  the  suffering 
became  intense.  Many  thousands  perished  for  the 
want  of  food,  and  thousands  more  in  consequence  of 
the  famine  fever.  One  who  visited  some  parts  of 
Ireland  in  1847,  says,  "  Death  seemed  to  pace  the 
streets.  I  met  every  where  collections  of  skeletons, 
whose  haggard  looks  spoke  volumes  of  hopeless  mis 
ery.  Wretched  countenances,  emaciated  forms,  the 
dying  and  the  dead,  funerals  and  desolation,  caught 
the  eye  on  every  side  ;  busy  villages  were  becoming 
37* 


438  THE   HALF   CENTURY. 

cemeteries ;  cabins  were  being  turned  into  charnel- 
houses." 

England  contributed  liberally  for  the  relief  of 
poor  famished  Ireland.  In  1845,  Sir  Robert  Peel 
ordered  an  importation  of  corn  from  the  United  States, 
to  the  amount  of  £100,000.  This  was  distributed 
during  the  ensuing  winter,  and  kept  many  alive  who 
otherwise  must  have  sunk  down  to  the  grave.  The 
next  year,  the  government  thought  it  better  to  pro 
vide  employment  for  the  people,  by  which  they  could 
support  themselves,  than  to  furnish  provisions  gratui 
tously.  During  that  year,  the  suffering  was  greatly 
alleviated  by  large  and  liberal  supplies  of  food  and 
clothing  sent  from  the  United  States.  Collections 
were  made  very  generally  through  the  country,  and 
many  a  valuable  cargo  of  bread  stuffs  was  sent  by 
our  people  to  the  sufferers  in  Ireland.  In  1847,  the 
crops  in  that  country  were  good,  and  the  people 
have  since  been  as  well  supplied  with  food  as  before 
the  famine. 


SECTION  8.     Literary  and  Scientific  Associations. 

THE  following  literary  and  scientific  associations 
have  been  formed  in  this  country  during  the  last  fifty 
years  :  — 

The  New  York  Historical  Society  was  formed  De 
cember  10,  1804.  Governors  Clinton,  Morris,  and 
Lewis,  Dr.  Hosack,  Chancellor  Kent,  and  Hon.  Albert 
Gallatin  have  been  among  its  warm  supporters.  The 


THE  HALF  CENTURY.  439 

society  published  its  first  volume  in  1809,  and  has 
added  one  about  every  seven  years.  It  has  a  library 
of  14,000  volumes. 

The  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  was 
founded  in  1805,  chartered  in  1806,  and  is  designed 
for  young  artists. 

The  American  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  at  New 
York,  was  founded  in  1808.  John  Trumbull,  LL. 
D.,  who  died  in  1831,  was  once  its  president.  It  is 
supported  entirely  by  artists. 

The  American  Antiquarian  Society,  at  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  was  incorporated  in  1812.  It  was 
founded  principally  through  the  instrumentality  of 
Isaiah  Thomas,  LL.  D.,  who  was  president  until  his 
death,  April  4,  1831,  aged  82.  The  building  was 
erected  in  1820,  and  given  to  the  society  by  Mr. 
Thomas.  He  also,  at  his  decease,  left  the  society  a 
legacy  of  §30,000,  and  a  valuable  collection  of  books. 
The  annual  income  of  the  society  is  $1,480.  Its 
library  contains  16,000  volumes,  of  which  1,300  are 
newspapers. 

The  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  at  Philadelphia, 
was  formed  in  1812,  and  incorporated  in  1817.  It 
has  a  library  of  10,000  volumes,  and  a  valuable  cabi 
net,  and  has  published  several  volumes  of  original 
matter.  William  Maclure  has  been  its  most  munifi 
cent  patron. 

The  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  South 
Carolina  was  formed  in  1813.  Hon.  J.  R.  Poinsett, 
late  secretary  of  war,  was  active  in  its  formation, 


440  THE  HALF   CENTURY. 

and  Stephen  Elliot,  the  botanist,  was  its  first  presi 
dent. 

The  East  India  Marine  Society,  at  Salem,  Massa 
chusetts,  was  incorporated  in  1801.  Its  object  was 
to  collect  facts  relative  to  the  physical  and  natural 
history  of  the  ocean.  No  person  can  be  a  member 
unless  he  has  navigated  the  seas  near  Cape  Horn  or 
Good  Hope  either  as  captain  or  supercargo.  It  has  a 
large  and  valuable  museum,  and  is  much  indebted  to 
Nathaniel  Bowditch,  LL.  D.,  a  very  remarkable  man, 
who  died  March  16,  1838,  aged  65.  He  was  the 
translator  of  the  Mecanique  Celeste  of  La  Place. 

The  Boston  Athen&um  was  formed  in  1804,  and 
incorporated  in  1807.  By  the  munificence  of  its 
friends,  it  built,  in  1849,  a  superb  edifice  in  the  vicini 
ty  of  the  State  House,  and  has  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes. 

The  Essex  Historical  Society  was  incorporated 
June  11,  1821.  Edward  A.  Holyoke,  LL.  D.,  was 
its  first  president. 

The  Maryland  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Literature 
was  established  at  Baltimore  in  1821. 

The  Franklin  Society  of  Natural  Science  was 
formed  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1821,  and 
incorporated  in  1823. 

The  Maine  Historical  Society  was  incorporated 
February  5,  1822.  In  1831,  it  published  a  volume 
of  valuable  historical  matter. 

The  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society  was  formed 


THE   HALF  CENTURY.  441 

April  19,  1822,  and  incorporated  soon  after.  It  has 
published  four  or  five  volumes. 

The  New  Hampshire  Historical  Society  was  in 
corporated  June,  1823.  It  has  been  an  efficient  insti 
tution  ;  it  has  published  several  volumes,  most  of 
which  were  prepared  by  John  Farmer,  Esq.,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  antiquarians  in  the  country,  who 
died  August  13,  1838,  aged  50. 

The  Connecticut  Historical  Society  was  incorpo 
rated  May,  1825,  but  had  but  one  meeting  previous  to 
1839. 

The  Historical  Society  of  Pennsylvania  was  estab 
lished  in  1825.  and  has  published  foiir  or  five  volumes 
of  Memoirs. 

The  National  Academy  of  Design,  at  New  York, 
was  formed  in  1826.  S.  F.  B.  Morse  is  its  president. 

The  Albany  Institute  was  established  in  1828.  It 
has  a  respectable  library  and  a  very  valuable  museum 
of  natural  history. 

The  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  was  incor 
porated  February,  1831.  G.  B.  Emerson  is  its  presi 
dent.  It  has  considerable  funds,  a  valuable  collection 
of  specimens,  and  has  published  five  or  six  volumes. 

The  Historical  and  Philosophical  Society  of  Ohio 
was  established  at  Columbus,  in  1830. 

The  Indiana  Historical  Society  was  incorporated 
in  1831. 

The  Virginia  Historical  and  Philosophical  Society 
was  instituted  in  1831. 


442  THE  HALF  CENTURY. 

The  Essex  County  Natural  History  Society  was 
incorporated  February,  1836. 

The  Kentucky  Historical  Society  was  formed 
March,  1838. 

The  Vermont  Historical  and  Antiquarian  Society 
was  incorporated  November,  1838. 

The  Georgia  Historical  Society,  incorporated  De 
cember,  1839,  has  the  best  collection  of  autographs 
in  the  country. 

The  American  Statistical  Association,  at  Boston, 
was  incorporated  February,.  1841.  It  has  published 
one  volume. 

The  New  England  Historic- Geneological  Society, 
at  Boston,  was  incorporated  in  March,  1845.  It  pub 
lishes  a  quarterly  Register,  which  was  commenced  in 
January,  1847. 

The  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  was  formed  about  1846,  and  meets  semi- 
annually,  and  continues  its  meetings  three  or  four 
days.  It  is  destined  to  be  a  popular  and  efficient 
institution. 

The  above  list  will  show  that  a  new  impulse  has 
been  given  to  the  pursuits  of  literature  and  science 
during  the  last  fifty  years.  There  were  but  four 
such  societies  prior  to  1801. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  Fugitive  Slave  Sill  passed  both  houses  of 
Congress,  and  was  signed  by  the  president  September 
18,  1850.  It  provides  that  the  judges  of  the  United 
States  courts,  and  commissioners  appointed  by  them, 
shall  have  power  to  issue  warrants,  and  cause  fugitive 
slaves  to  be  arrested  and  brought  before  them  ;  and 
if  it  appears  to  them  that  the  person  arrested  is  a 
fugitive  from  the  prosecutor,  he  shall  be  authorized  to 
take  the  individual  back  to  a  state  of  bondage.  If 
the  marshal  or  a  deputy  refuse  to  execute  the  war 
rant,  he  shall  pay  a  fine  of  $1,000.  If  any  person 
conceal  a  fugitive  slave,  or  assist  him  to  escape,  or  at 
tempt  to  rescue  him  when  arrested,  he  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  of  §1.000  and  six  months'  imprisonment. 

The  enactment  of  this  law  has  produced  much 
excitement  in  the  free  states,  and  is  regarded  by 
many  as  unconstitutional,  because  it  virtually  sus 
pends  the  habeas  corpus  act. 

Many  have  already  pledged  themselves  not  to  obey 
it ;  they  will  incur  the  penalty,  rather  than  aid  or 
abet  in  the  execution  of  the  la\v.  Three  or  four 
slaves  have  already  been  arrested  and  carried  away 
into  slavery.  I  trust  that  He  who  has  guided  this 
nation  through  many  perils  will  interpose,  and  merci 
fully  save  us  from  the  evils  which  this  law  portends. 


The  eleventh  asteroid  was  discovered  June,  1850. 
It  is  called  Parthenope. 


444 


APPENDIX. 


European  Sovereigns  that  have  died  during  tlie  last  Half  Century. 

George  III.,  England, 

George  IV.,          " 

William  IV., 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  France, 

Louis  XVIII., 

Charles  X., 

Louis  Philip,  " 

Charles  IV.,      Spain, 

Ferdinand  VII.,    «• 

Francisca,  queen  of  Portugal, 

John  VI., 

Paul  I.,         Russia, 

Alexander,       " 

Gustavus  IV.,  Sweden, 

Charles  XIII., 

Charles  XIV., 

Christian  VII.,  Denmark, 

Frederic  VI.,  " 

Christian  VIII.,       « 

Frederic  William  III.,  Prussia, 

William  I.,  HoUand, 

William  II.,       " 

Charles  Emanuel  IV.,  Sardinia, 

Victor  Emanuel  L,  " 

Charles  Felix,  " 

Charles  Albert,  " 

Pius  VII.,         Rome,         " 

Leo  XII.,  " 

Pius  VIII., 

Gregory  XVI.,    " 

Ferdinand,  Two  Sicilies, 

Francis,  " 

Selim  III.,      Turkey, 

Mahmoud  II.,      " 

Francis  II.,  Austria, 

Frederic  Augustus,  Saxony, 

Anthony  I.,  " 

Maximilian  Joseph,  Bavaria, 

Frederic,  Wurtemberg, 

Capo  d'Istria,  Greece, 


lied  January  29, 
"     June  26, 
"     June  20, 
"     May  5, 
44     September  16 

M 

1820,    ag 
1830, 
1837, 
1821, 
1824, 
1836, 
1850, 
1819, 
1833, 
1816, 
1826, 
1801, 
1825, 
1837, 
1818, 
1844, 
1808, 
1839, 
1848, 
1840, 
1843, 
1849, 
1819, 

1831,' 
1849, 
1823, 
1829, 
1830, 
1846, 
1825, 
1830, 
1808, 
1839, 
1835, 
1827, 
1836, 
1825, 
1816, 
1831, 

ed82. 
'  68. 
«  72. 

'  52. 
4  69. 
'  79. 
'  76. 
'  78. 
4  49. 
<  ^ 

«  59! 
4  47. 
4  48. 
4  59. 
4  70. 
4  80. 
<  59. 
4  72. 
'  62. 
4  70. 
4  72. 
4  56. 
t  ,  , 

|| 

<( 
it 
« 
tt 

<( 

M 
M 
M 

1 

( 
<t 
it 
ft 
M 
| 

M 
M 

August  26, 
January  19, 
September  29 

March, 
December  1, 

f 

March  8, 
March, 
December  3, 
January  20, 
June, 
December  12, 
March  17, 

> 

1  66. 
*  50. 
'  81. 
'  66. 
'  69. 
*  80. 
4  74. 
4  53. 

March  29, 
July  28, 
July  6, 
February, 
December, 

January  5, 
November  8, 

July  1, 

4  54. 
4  67. 
•  64. 
4  81. 
4  69. 

<  > 

October, 

RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4 
days  prior  to  due  date. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

SEP  05  2000 


12,000(11/95) 


LD21A-40m-ll,'63  TT   ,ru       - 

(E1602slO)476B  University  of  California 

Berkeley 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


A.!" 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


I 


